!IN SYANIDaVIRID AN ID SI AND
RUSSIAN
St h s/ c z e n h
P rz e d s ta w io n e s t u d iu m je s t p ró b ą a n a liz y s p o s o b ó w fu n k c jo n o w a n ia w y b r a n y c h g r u p zapożyczeń a n g ie lsk ic h w ros y js kim w s p ó łc z e s n y m sla ngu m ło d z ie ż o w y m . A u t o r o p is u je w y b r a n e p r z y k ła d y a d a p ta c ji fo n e ty c z n y c h , s ło w o t w ó r c z y c h i fle k s y jn y c h , j a k im u le gają a n g iels k ie w y r a z y za n u rz o n e w ś r o d o w is k u ję z y k o w y m o in n y m t y p ie m o r f o lo g ii i g ra fe m ik i, p ró b u ją c je d n o c z e ś n ie o d p o w i e d z ie ć na p y ta n ia d o ty c z ą ce s ta tu s u „ ję z y k o w e j p rz y n a le ż n o ś c i" ty c h j e d n o s t e k w k o n tek ś c ie „ lin g w is t y c z n e g o p ra w a w ła s n o ś c i".
II. In t r o d u c t i o n
T h e a im o f t h is s t u d y is t o a n aly z e s e le c t e d f e a t u r e s o f English b o r r o w i n g s in t o Russian. T h e an alysis fo c u s e s o n s o m e o f t h e w a y s in w h i c h English w o r d s an d e x p r e s s io n s are e x p lo it e d by t h e Russian y o u t h o f t o d a y . Y oung Russians have a p r o p e n s it y f o r " s t e a lin g " bits a n d b o b s o f t h e English la n g u ag e a n d r u n n i n g t h e m t h r o u g h t h e cogs a n d w h e e ls o f t h e d e r iv a t io n a l a n d in f l e c t io n a l m a c h in e r y o f t h e i r o w n v e r n a c u la r . C o n s id e r e d f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f " o w n e r s h ip " , la rge-sca le b o r r o w i n g f r o m English in t o Russian raises a n u m b e r o f in t e r e s t in g q u e s t io n s , in c lu d in g t h e f o l l o w i n g : 1) Can w e t r a c e t h e Englishness in t h e " e m b e z z l e d " a n d a d a p t e d lin g u is t ic e l e m e n t s in a f o r eign la n g u a g e (e.g., Russian)?, 2) Do t h e s e i m p o r t e d lexical it e m s b e lo n g t o t h e t a r g e t la ng u a g e ? , an d 3) S h o u ld t h e r e be a n y li m i t a t i o n s o n w h a t a p pe ars t o be excessive b o r r o w i n g an d if so, w h o c a n / s h o u ld im p o s e t h e m ?
I i / i \
T h e analysis is m o s t l y le x ic o g r a p h ic a lly - d r iv e n , sin ce I c o lle c t e d t h e e m piric a l m a t e r i a l f r o m t h r e e r e c e n t d i c t i o n a r ie s o f Russian slang: M a r k u n a s (2 0 0 3 ), M o k i e n k o a n d N ik it in a ( 2 0 0 5 ), a n d Y e lis tr a to v ( 2 0 0 6 ) , c o n s u ltin g s ea rc h e n g in e s a n d la n g u a g e c o r p o r a (N a t s i o n a l' n y y k o r p u s r u s s k o g o yazy-
ka) o n ly oc c a s io n a lly . I fo c u s e d m a i n ly o n t h e f ir s t o f t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d
d i c ti o n a r ie s , as it s e e m s t o be t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t in g s o u r c e o f e m p ir ic a l m a t e rial as f a r as English b o r r o w i n g s in t o Russian s la ng are c o n c e r n e d : a b o u t t w o h u n d r e d lo a n w o r d s w e r e e x t r a c t e d f r o m it a n d are a n aly z ed here.
2 . An a i v s i s o r t> i ih i i u h i h a t c c i a i
As is w e l l - k n o w n , b o r r o w i n g s can be d iv id e d in to v a r io u s classes ba sed o n t h e g e n e r a ll y a c k n o w le d g e d c la s s ific a to ry c r it e r ia (cf. H a u g e n 1950, M a ń c z a k - W o h lf e ld 19 92 , 19 94, 2 0 0 5 , 20 0 6 , W a lc z a k 20 01 , A ra b s k i 20 0 7 ). For t h e p u r p o s e o f t h is s t u d y I s e le c te d f o u r g r o u p s o f b o r r o w i n g s w h ic h I f o u n d w o r t h f o c u s in g o n d e s p ite , o r p e r h a p s , o w i n g t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y d o n o t n e c e s s a rily f i t n e a t ly in to t h e r e c o g n iz e d s c h e m a t a . T he c r it e r ia a c c o r d in g t o w h i c h t h e e x a m p le s w e r e g r o u p e d are p r o v id e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e analysis: it s h o u ld be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t it is t h e lo a n w o r d s ( f o r e ig n w o r d s , b o r r o w i n g s ) used b y y o u n g Russians t h a t are fo c u s e d on h e r e . 1
2 .1 . U nn ece ss ary b orro w in g s
T h e f ir s t g r o u p o f e x a m p le s a re in s ta n c e s o f u n n e c e s s a r y b o r r o w i n g s (cf. M a ń c z a k 1 9 9 5 : 19), i.e., f o r e i g n w o r d s w i t h n a t iv e c o u n t e r p a r t s t h a t are w e ll- e s t a b li s h e d in t h e t a r g e t la n g u a g e , i.e., R u ssia n :2 (1) v a y f [eaucp] (E 'w ife ', SR 'z h e n a ') (2) ay k [o u k] ( E ' ic o n ', S R ' ik o n a ') (3) b a b lg a m [6 a 6 m a iv \ ] (E 'b u b b l e g u m ', SR 'z h e v a t e l'n a y a rezinka', 'z h v a c h - ka') (4) v o k [b o k] (E 'w alk ', SR ' g u l y a t " )
1 Compare th e c o n te m p o ra ry Polish o f young people as described by Ożóg (2007: 240). See also Djakov (2003) w h o sees 'expressiveness o f no ve lty' as one o f th e factors w hic h te m p ts young Russians to use English w o rds freq u e n tly : "expressiveness o f novelty is one o f th e sound reasons fo r b o rro w in g English w ords as m ore prestigious, significant, distinctive. English loanwords have an advantage over th e ir Russian syn onyms in th e sense th a t th e y place th e speaker hig her on th e social ladder, th e y e m phasize his o r her in fo rm a tiv e cred ib ility and th e y aspire to be an index o f sup e rio rity o f th e young people w h o use th e m [tra nsla tio n m in e]."
2 To d e m o n s trate th e graphem ic adaptatio n, th e analyzed loanwords are provid ed in Cyrillic in square brackets. RS stands fo r 'Russian slang', SR stands fo r 'Standard Rus sian'.
M i > t \ t ' i v i / w i A s 4 n . w ' s i s c i Ni i m 111 l y i i m . . . I 5 5
(5) baki [ 6o k u] (1. E 'b ucks', ' d o lla r s '; SR 'd o lla r y ', 2. E 'a n y m o n e y / c u r r e n
cy', SR 'd e n ' g i' ) 3 (6) b a n d a [S aH da] (E 'b a n d ', 'r o c k b a nd ', 'm u s ic a l g r o u p ', SR 'a n s a m b l ') (7) bas [ 6 a c ] (E 'bus', SR 'a v t o b u s ') (8) b o y [ 6 o u } (E 'b o y ', 'a y o u n g m a n ', SR 'm a l'c h ik ', 'p a r e n ', ' p o d r o s t o k ' ) 4 (9) boss [6 o c c ] (E 'boss', 's u p e r io r ', SR 'n a c h a l'n ik ', 'z a v e d u y u s h c h i y ') (10) bra z e r [ 6 p a 3 e p ] (E ' b r o t h e r ' , SR ' b r a t ' ) (11) b r itis h [ 6 p u m u u j ] (1. E 'a B r it is h /E n g lis h p e r s o n ( in v a r ia b le N)', SR 'b r it a n e t s ', ' a n g lic h a n in '; 2. E 'B ritis h ', 'E n g lis h ' ( in v a r ia b le A d j) ; SR ' b r i t a n s k iy ' / a n g liy s k i y ')
(12) b e g [6 3 3] (E 'bag', SR 's u m k a ')
(13) b e d [ 6 3 d / 6 e d ] (E 'bed', SR ' k r o v a t ', 'p o s t e l') (14) bag [6a e] (E 'b u g ', SR 'n a s e k o m o e ' )
(15) b e k [ Ó3K], be ksayd [6 s K c a u d ] (E 'b a c k ( N )', 'b a c k s id e ', 5 2. 'b a c k (Adv)', SR 'z adn it s a', 'n aza d', ' o b r a t n o ' ) ;
(16) v a y n [eauH] (E ' w in e ', SR ' v in o ') (17) b o t l / b a t l / b o t l a / b a t l a [ 6 o m n / 6 a m n / 6 o m n a / 6 a m n a \ (E 'a b o t t l e o f v o d ka', SR ' b u t y l k a ' ) (18) v a y t [e a u m ] ( in v a ria b le ), v a y t o v y y [ e a u m o e b iu ] ( v a r ia b le ) (E 'w h i t e ', SR ' b e l y y ') (19) m e n [m s h] (E 'm a n ', SR 'm u z h c h in a ' ) W h i l e t h e a b o v e l o a n w o r d s m i g h t s e e m r e d u n d a n t f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f lexical s e m a n t ic s , t h e i r p r e s e n c e in t h e la n g u a g e o f y o u n g Russians is m o t i v a t e d by p r a g m a ti c a n d s ty lis tic f a c t o r s . T h e English b o r r o w i n g s in q u e s t io n b e lo n g t o t h e ex p re s s iv e la y e r o f t h e v o c a b u la r y , t h e i r m a r k e d n e s s r e v e a le d by t h e i r use t o 's o u n d cool', as is f r e q u e n t l y t h e case o f y o u n g p e o p le 's spe ech , a n d b y c e r t a in e v a lu a t iv e o v e r t o n e s t h a t e n r ic h t h e i r lexical m e a n in g c o m p a r e d b o t h w i t h t h e i r English c o u n t e r p a r t s a n d a l r e a d y e x is tin g n a tiv e co g n a te s . For e x a m p le , w h i l e b o t h ' m e n ' a n d ' m u z h c h i n a ' ( ' m a n ' ) have t h e s a m e e x te n s io n s , t h e f o r m e r is used e i t h e r t o s h o w a p p r o v a l o r d is a p p r o v a l o f m a n ly q u a lit ie s . In c o n t r a s t t o t h e English w o r d 'boss', in Russian slang 'b o s s ' is used f o r 'a bo ssy p e r s o n ' t o e n c o d e ir o n y a n d t o d i s c r e d i t a p e r son w h o b e h a v e s like a boss b u t in f a c t is n o t o n e . Thus, t h e e x t e n s io n o f t h e English o r ig in a l a n d t h e Russian b o r r o w i n g diffe r. T he ex p re s s iv e n o t io n s t h a t e n r ic h t h e i r lexical m e a n in g are t h e v e h ic le f o r t h e i r e m o t i v e - e v a lu a t iv e s p e e c h ac t f u n c t i o n (cf. A w d i e j e w 2 0 0 4 : 1 1 5 ff). As a r e s u lt, such b o r r o w i n g s a re q u a s i- u n n e c e s s a r y r a t h e r t h a n t r u l y r e d u n d a n t .
3 Cf. RS 'kapusta', 'babio', 'babki', 'babosy', 'tugriki', 'zelen", etc. 4 Cf. SR 'b o y ' m eanin g 'fig h t' o r 'struggle'.
5 The back part o f th e body; e.g., 'Pryamo m ne beksaydom na ruku sel.' ('He planted his backside rig ht on my hand.').
l i / > % / i< i ( / ( \
T h e p r a g m a t i c a n d s t y lis t ic e f f e c t is also a c h ie v e d t h r o u g h g r a m m a t ic a l a n o m a lie s , e.g., 'v o k ' ( ' w a l k ') illu s t r a t e d in (4) is a v e r b w h i c h r e ta in s its o r i g i nal g r a m m a t ic a l c h a r a c t e r is tic s w h e n used in a Russian s e n t e n c e , i.e., it d o e s n o t b e a r a n y n a t iv e i n f l e c t io n a l m o r p h o lo g y . As s h o w n in t h e e x a m p le b e low, t h e v e r b d o e s n o t ha ve t h e n a t iv e in f i n i t i v e s u ffix r e q u ir e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e m o d a l a u x ilia r y v e r b ' m o c h " ( ' t o be a b le t o ' ) : (20) Ne m o g u ya v o k p o t a k o m u k h o lo d u . 'I c a n n o t w a lk w h e n it is so c old o u ts id e .' On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e v e r b 'v o k ' ( ' w a l k ') is a d a p t e d at t h e levels o f s p e ll ing an d p h o n o lo g y . T h e C y rillic n o t a t i o n c o n t a in s t h e l e t t e r 'b', w h i c h r e p re s e n ts t h e English l e t t e r 'w ', b u t w h i c h is p r o n o u n c e d in Russian as V . As ' v o k ' ( ' w a l k ') is p a r t l y a g r a p h e m ic b o r r o w i n g , it is b a r e ly p o s s ib le f o r a n a tiv e s p e a k e r o f English t o r e c o g n iz e t h is w o r d as b e in g o f English o r i g in . 6 U n lik e t h e v e r b 'v ok ', t h e in v a r ia b le a d je c ti v e ' b r i t i s h ' ( ' B r it is h ') s h o w n in (11) is m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y w e ll - a d a p t e d : it c o n s t it u t e s t h e base f o r d e r iv a t iv e s w i t h t h e t a r g e t la n g u a g e a d je c ti v iz in g s uffix e s '-sk', -ov', e.g., 'b r it is h o v s k iy ' ( ' B r it ish'), ' b r i t i s h o v y y ' ( 'B r it is h ') , w h e r e r e d u n d a n c y o c c u rs n o t o n ly b e t w e e n t h e rival i t e m s f o r 'B r itis h ', n a m e ly 'b r i t i s h ' a n d ' b r it a n s k iy ', b u t also w i t h i n t h e d e r iv a t io n a l n e s t itself. ' B r it is h o v s k iy ' ( 'B r it is h ') a n d ' b r i t i s h o v y y ' ( ' B r it is h ') d e n o t e t h e s a m e c o n c e p ts as ' b r it is h ' a n d 'b r it a n s k iy ' : t h e a d je c tiv iz in g s uffix e s '-s k ' a n d '-ov', p e r f o r m o n ly a f o r m a l f u n c t i o n w h i l e b e in g p le o n a s t ic f r o m t h e lexical s e m a n t ic p o i n t o f v ie w . 7 A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e s p e llin g o f ' b r it is h ' ( 'B r it is h ') f o l l o w s t h e Russian rules o f o r t h o g r a p h y , w h ic h d e m o n s tra te s t h a t it is w e l l - a d a p t e d a t t h e g r a p h e m ic level.
T h e l o a n w o r d ' b o t l ' ' b o t t l e o f v o d k a ' in (17) is a spe cia l case t h a t can be a n a ly z e d as an in s ta n c e o f m e t o n y m i c m o d i f i c a t i o n t h a t has o c c u r r e d d u r in g t h e pro c e s s o f b o r r o w i n g : u n lik e 'b o t t le ', ' b o t l ' d o e s n o t d e n o t e a n y b o t tl e , b u t o n ly a ' b o t t l e o f v o d k a '. T hus, t h e r e is a m e t o n y m i c r e d u c t io n w i t h i n t h e s p h e r e o f s u b s ta n c e s t h a t can be s t o r e d in t h is p a r t i c u la r c o n t a i n e r (cf. A w d i e j e w a n d H a b ra js k a 2 0 0 4 : 3 0 3 - 3 0 4 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e d u c t io n il lu s t r a t e d by ' b o t l ' s e e m s t o a t t e s t t o t h e r o le o f s h o r t - h a n d s in t h e o ra l style , e s p e c ia lly in slang. T h e p ro cess o f s e m a n t ic c h a n g e a n d a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e lo a n w o r d TDag' ( ' b u g ') s h o w n in (14) a b o v e is p a r t i c u la r ly n o t e w o r t h y : t h e p r i m a r y m e a n ing o f t h e w o r d is a t t a i n e d in Russian s la ng f r o m t h e sense o f t h e w o r d ' b u g ' t h a t e m b r a c e s "a f a u l t in t h e s y s te m o f i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t o p e r a te s a c o m p u t e r " ( B u l l o n 2 0 0 3 : 192), w h i c h in English is a s e c o n d a r y m e a n in g o f t h is w o r d . T h e sense o f 'a s m a ll in s e c t', t h e p r i m a r y sense o f 'b u g ' in English'
6 Cf. also 'v ayt' ('w a it'), 'v ayf' ('wife)', 'vayn' ('w ine').
7 Already here w e can observe th e derivatio nal po ten tia l o f th e loanwords, also illus tra te d in th e fo u rth g roup o f examples discussed in section 2.4.
* l ( * t V » » i v i / v i i
\i*.u s i.
A s W u 's is « i Si i m i ■ i ł v ■ im ...is a d d e d o n ly later, as a s e c o n d a r y m e a n in g o f t h e w o r d 'b a g ' ( ' b u g ') in Rus sian slang, as illu s t r a t e d in Fig. 1 b e lo w :
English: b u g 1 (Insect,) - > b u g 2 ( c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e ) ^
Russian slang: bag [ 6 o a ] L( c o m p u t e r la n g u a g e ) - > bag [ 6 a e ] 2 (in s e c t)
F ig . l. T he pro c e s s o f s e m a n t ic c h a n g e in 'b a g ' ( 'b u g ') .
2 .2 . Bo rrow ing s involving s e m a n tic shift, m e t o n y m y o r m e t a p h o r
T h e s e c o n d g r o u p r e c o g n iz e d h e re c o m p r is e s w o r d s w h ic h , b e in g o ra l b o r r o w in g s , are easily r e c o g n iz a b le as English lo a n w o r d s ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e s e w o r d s c a r r y d i f f e r e n t m e a n in g s c o m p a r e d t o t h e i r English s o u r c e lex e m e s , as il lu s t r a t e d b e lo w : (21) v a u c h e r [e a y n e p ] (E 'v o u c h e r ', RS 1. ' m a le sexual o r g a n ' 2. 'u n r e lia b l e u n t r u s t w o r t h y p a r t n e r ' ) (22) k h o b b y [ x o 6 6 b i] (E ' h o b b y ', RS ' m a le sexual o r g a n ') (23) s p o n s o r [c n o H e o p ] (E 's p o n s o r ', RS 1. 'a ric h lo v e r ' 2. ' m a le sexual o r g a n ' 3. 'a c o n d o m ')
(24) g a m b u r g e r [zaM Ó ypeep] (E ' h a m b u r g e r ' , RS 'a fo r e ig n e r , u s u a lly o n e f r o m a W e s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r y '
(25) Blek s a b b a t [E /i s k c a 6 6 a m ] (E 'B la ck S a b b a th ', RS 1. 's u b b o t n i k ', 2. ' o f f i
c ia lly a n n o u n c e d w o r k i n g S a tu rd a y s a f t e r t h e in t r o d u c t i o n o f a fiv e - d a y w o r k i n g w e e k ')
T h e f ir s t t h r e e e x a m p le s fall w i t h i n t h e s e m a n t ic c a t e g o r y SEX a n d lexicalize t h e c o n c e p t o f M ALE SEXUAL O R G A N .8 A c o m p a r is o n b e t w e e n t h e m e a n ings o f t h e English s o u r c e w o r d s a n d t h e m e a n in g s o f t h e b o r r o w i n g s in to Russian sla ng reveals o b v io u s s e m a n t ic d i ff e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e c o m p a r e d it e m s . T h e sense e x t e n s io n s in v o lv e d in t h e a b o v e e x a m p le s arise f r o m m e t a p h o r ic a l o r m e t o n y m i c m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e o r ig in a l m e a n in g s t h a t are c h a r a c te riz e d by v a r io u s d e g r e e s o f t r a n s p a r e n c y . P e rh ap s t h e least t r a n s p a r e n t e x a m p le is 'v a u c h e r ' [e a y n e p ] in (21). H e re t h e o r ig in a l w o r d ' v o u c h e r ' is p r o je c t e d f r o m t h e s o u r c e d o m a i n ( ' v o u c h e r ' ) o n t o t h e t a r g e t d o m a i n ( 'm a le sexual o r g a n ') a n d s e c o n d a r il y o n t o its o w n e r , ba sed o n t h e a s s o c ia tio n o f t h e lack o f r e l ia n c e / r e l ia b ili t y : b o t h m a n a n d t h e b io lo g ic a l s y m b o l o f m a l e ness are r e g a r d e d as u n t r u s t w o r t h y ( f r o m t h e p e r s p e c tiv e o f t h e o p p o s it e sex). A ls o ' k h o b b y ' [x o 6 6 b i] ( ' m a le sexual o r g a n ') in (22) can be e x p lic a te d via m e t o n y m y c o m b in e d w i t h m e t a p h o r : t h e d o m a i n o f e n jo y a b l e a c t i v i t y is r e s t r ic t e d t o a c t iv i t y as s o c ia te d w i t h t h e m a le o rg a n , a n d lin k e d t o t h e o rg a n
This category is q uite prolific in Russian. M ic hało w ski (2009) describes a b o ut 350 te rm s w ith in th e category MALE SEXUAL ORGAN, w hic h is represented by about 3,000 items altogether, including derivatives.
t l I < / « \
itself. T h e b o r r o w i n g ' s p o n s o r ' [c noHCop] s h o w n in (23) in v o lv e s a c h a n g e o f its o r ig in a l m e a n in g ('a p e r s o n (...) t h a t s u p p o r t s s o m e o n e by p a y in g f o r t h e i r t r a in in g , e d u c a t i o n , liv in g costs, e tc '; B u lio n 2 0 0 3 : 1 5 9 8 ) t o 'a p e r s o n p a y in g f o r sexual a c t i v i t y o r s e rv ic e s '; its s e c o n d a n d t h i r d m e a n in g are e x a m p le s o f a d i f f e r e n t kin d o f m e t o n y m y , s y n e c d o c h e (WHOLE-FOR-PART), w h i c h i n v o lv e s r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p e r s o n w i t h n a m e s o f e n t it ie s t h a t can be ta k e n t o be t h e i r 'p a rts ', i.e., t h e i r m a le o rg a n a n d t h e a s s o c ia te d p r o t e c t iv e de vic e .
O c c as io na lly , t h e m e a n in g s are u n e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f o u r c u l t u r a l k n o w le d g e , e.g., ' g a m b u r g e r ' [z a M 6 y p a e p ] in (24) d e n o te s a f o r e i g n er, u s u a lly o n e f r o m a W e s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r y ( b u t n o t f r o m t h e U.S.); it is an e x c e lle n t e x a m p le o f m e t o n y m y , w h e r e FOOD s ta n d s f o r M A N w h o eats it. O n t h e w h o l e w e w o u l d e x p e c t it t o be used in r e f e r e n c e t o A m e r ic a n s , as t h is f a s t - fo o d is c o m m o n l y a s s o c ia te d w i t h t h e USA r a t h e r t h a n w i t h any o t h e r f o r e i g n c o u n t r y . 'B le k s a b b a t ' [Bji b h c a 6 6 a m ], lite r a lly 'b la c k S a tu rd a y ', is an i n te r e s t in g l o a n w o r d in t h a t B la c k S a b b a th , b e in g t h e n a m e o f a f a m o u s h e a v y m e t a l b a n d , is a s s o c ia te d w i t h h e a v y m e t a l m u s ic , w h i l e t h e m e a n in g s o f t h e b o r r o w i n g in Russian sla ng in d ic a t e d in (25) have aris e n t h r o u g h a play o n t h e n a t iv e Russian w o r d ' s u b b o t a ' ' S a t u r d a y ' ( d a ti n g ba c k t o O ld Russia) and 's a b b a t'. I n c id e n ta lly , ' s u b b o t n i k ' is a Russian w o r d also use d in English t o d e n o t e t h e h y p o c r it ic a l p h e n o m e n o n o f t h e p r a c tic e o r an ac t o f w o r k i n g " v o l u n t a r i l y " o n a S atu rday , f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e c o lle c tiv e , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e S o v ie t era (K apla n 19 6 8 : 359).
2 .3 . R h ym in g expressions
T h e t h i r d g r o u p c o m p r is e s l o a n w o r d s w h ic h are used in r h y m i n g c o n s t r u c t io n s f u n c t i o n i n g as sayings o r c a tc h y phrases. T h e y are r e fe r r e d t o in t h e li t e r a t u r e as r e d u p lic a t i v e w o rd s , r h y m e c o m b in a t io n s , e c h o c o m p o u n d s o r
r h y m e ta g s ( S o b k o w ia k 1 9 9 1 : 1 6 0 ) . I have s e le c te d t h r e e a m u s in g e x a m p le s :
(26) Rashn sam s e b e s tr a s h e n [P auiH c o m c e 6 e c m p a m e H ] .
'A Russian p e r s o n is a t h r e a t t o h i m / h e r s e l f '
(27) Dazhe k le v y y s h t a ts k iy z ip p e r p r o p u s k a e t ru s s k iy t r i p p e r [/ J a w ę K/ieebiu ujmamcKuu 3unnep nponycKaem pyccKuu mpunnep
].
'Even an e x c e lle n t A m e r i c a n z ip p e r lets in Russian g o n o r r h e a ' (28) O ' k e y - s k a z a l d e d M o k e y [O 'K e u - C K 0 3 a n d e d M o K e u ],
'Ok, - said g r a n d p a M o k e y .'
'R ashn sam seb e s t r a s h e n ' in (26) is a p e r f e c t e x a m p le o f a v o w e l r e d u c t io n o v e r la p , w h i c h d o e s n o t o c c u r in Polish b o r r o w i n g s f r o m English. B o th Rus sian a n d English a re la n g u a g e s w i t h s t r o n g r e d u c t i o n o f u n s tre s s e d v o w e ls . T h e / a / o r / i / (in Russian 'shva s t o c h k o y ' ) as w e ll as v o w e l e lis io n c o n s t i t u t e t h e basis f o r t h i s r e d u p lic a t i v e c o m p o u n d : / r a j ' ^ n / a n d / s t r a i n / . This r h y m
M f v t V * » ł V ( z\! i A n 4 n \ i ' S H c i S i i i i i i i I m m m . . . I
59
in g e x p r e s s io n can be in t e r p r e t e d as 'all m i s f o r t u n e s t h a t h a p p e n t o t h e Rus sians are t h e i r o w n fa u lt '.
T he r h y m e c o m b i n a t i o n in (27) f u n c t i o n s as an e m o t i v e - e v a lu a t iv e s p e e c h ac t (cf. A w d i e j e w 2 0 0 4 : 1 1 5 ff) t o s h o w d is a p p r o v a l o f s o m e t h i n g o f p o o r q u a l it y o r o f s o m e t h i n g t h a t is g o in g t o p r o v e useless. It is f o u n d e d on t h e m e t a p h o r w h o s e s o u rc e d o m a i n is t h e OBJECT OF SEXUAL INTEREST and t h e t a r g e t d o m a i n is t h e OBJECT W O R T H S O M E O N E 'S INTEREST. ' Z i p p e r ' c a r ries t h e a s s o c ia tio n w i t h SEX w h i l e ' t r i p p e r ' (Russian f o r ' g o n o r r h e a ' ) im p lie s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f SEX a n d FAILURE. T h u s , t h is c o m b i n a t i o n can be c o n s id e r e d as r e s u lt in g f r o m a k in d o f 'c o o p e r a t i o n ' o f t h e s e m a n t ic a n d p h o n o l o g i cal p la n e s o f t h e le x e m e s ' z ip p e r ' a n d ' t r i p p e r ' : t h e i r m e a n in g s a re lin k e d via t h e p r e s e n te d m e t a p h o r w h i l e t h e i r p h o n o lo g ic a l s t r u c t u r e s o v e r la p , b e in g d i f f e r e n t i a t e d o n ly b y t h e i r o n s e t c o n s o n a n t s / z / a n d / t r / . T h e r h y m e c o m b i n a t i o n in (28) is a s et p h ra s e use d t o s h o w a g r e e m e n t o r a p p r o v a l. T h e English lo a n w o r d ' o 'k e y ' r h y m e s w i t h 'd e d M o k e y ', a c h a r a c t e r f r o m a p o p u l a r c h ild r e n 's TV p r o g r a m . 9 T h e r e f e r e n c e b rin g s a b o u t in fa n t il iz a t io n o f t h e e x p re s s e d a p p r o v a l, w h ic h , w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e n u r s e r y r h y m e , le nd s an air o f ir o n y t o t h e phrase.
2.4 . M o rp h o lo g ic a l (in fle c tio n a l an d d e riv a tio n a l) a d a p ta tio n
T h e f o u r t h g r o u p o f b o r r o w i n g s in t o w h ic h t h e e m p ir ic a l m a t e r i a l s t u d ie d h e r e w a s d iv id e d c o m p r is e s c o n t a m i n a t i o n s w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f in f le c t io n a l a n d d e r iv a t io n a l a d a p t a t i o n (cf. M a ń c z a k - W o h lf e ld 1 9 9 2 : 20 -23 ). S o m e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e e x a m p le s are p r o v id e d b e lo w :
(29) a y o v s h c h in a [ auoem,UHa] (E 'in h a b it a n t s o f Iowa', SR 'A m e r ic a n s ')
m \ c h \ g a n s h c h \n a \MUHU2aHW,UHai {E ‘ \r\hab'rt.ar\ts W\\ch\gan', SR
'A m e r ic a n s ') (30) M a y - K ly u k h a [ M a u - K / ii o x a ] (E 'M i c h a e l J a ckso n') (31) v in d a [ s UHda], v in 'd o z a [e u H 'd o 3 a ] v in d o 'z a [e u H d o '3 a } v in d o u z a [e u H d o y 3 a ] v in d o z a [ e u H 0 0 3 a ] v i n d u s y a t in a [e u H d y c n m u H a ], v y n ' [ e b i H b ] v i n d y [euHdbi] v in d u s y a t n ik [euHdycHmHUK] I v in d u z y a t n ik [8UHdy3nmHUK] ( E 'a us e r o f W i n d o w s ' ) (E ' W i n d o w s ' )
9 The origin al TV program was called Skazki dedushki M okeya; la ter th e name was changed to V gostyakh u dedushki Mokeya).
6 0 i ł / > S / | ( I | / < A
(32) o b k h a y r a t ' [ o 6 x a u p a m b ] (E ' t o c u t sb's hair', SR ' p o d s t r i c h " )
o b k h a y r a t 's y a [ o 6 x a u p a m b c n ] (E ' t o have o n e 's h a ir c u t', SR 'p o d s t r ic h 's y a ')
(33) o p rik e v a t' [onpuneBaTb] (E 1. 'go mad', 2. 'be in a w e '; SR 1. 'soyti s uma', 2. 'b y t' pod sil'nym v p e c h a tle n ie m o t chego-l.')
In t h e e x a m p le s illu s t r a t e d in (29), English r o o ts ' I o w a ' a n d ' M i c h i g a n ' are c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e s u ffix ' - s h c h in ' o n t h e d e r iv a t io n a l m o d e l f o r 'ry a z a n s h - china', i.e., 'r y a z a n + - s h c h in ( a ) ' (E 'Ryazan a n d / o r its in h a b it a n t s (p e j.)'). The m e a n in g c h a n g e is again f o u n d e d o n m e t o n y m y , a n d f o r c o n c r e te n e s s , on s y n e c d o c h e : STATE s ta n d s f o r t h e w h o l e COUNTRY, as t h e lo a n w o r d s d o n o t d e n o t e t h e p a r t i c u l a r s tates ( 'Io w a ', 'M i c h i g a n ') n o r t h e i r c itiz ens, b u t all A m e r ic a n s . E x a m p le (30) illu s t r a t e s a m o r p h e m i c o v e r la p - t h e r o o t 'M i c h a e l ' o v e r laps w i t h t h e r o o t ' k ly u k h ' ( 'c h u m ' ) an d t h e b o r d e r o f t h e o v e r la p m a k e s t h e s u ffix ' - u k h ' p r o m i n e n t . T h e s u f f ix c a rrie s an e x p r e s s iv e - d i m i n u t i v e m e a n in g by a n a lo g y t o t h e m o d e l on w h i c h n o u n s like 'V a n y u k h a ', 'V e r u k h a ' are d e riv e d f r o m n a t iv e p r o p e r n a m e s ('Vanya', 'V e ra '), h e n c e ' m a y k ly u k h a ' ( li te r ally: ' m y c h u m ') is a h y p o c o r is m . T h e a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e t r a d e n a m e ' W i n d o w s ' s h o w s t h a t y o u n g Russians d o n o t h e s it a t e t o e x p lo it t h e s e g m e n ta l, p r o s o d ic , i n f l e c t io n a l a n d d e r iv a t i o n a l c a p a c ity o f t h e i r la n g u a g e . T h e n a m e o f t h e o p e r a t i n g s y s te m in Rus sian s la ng e i t h e r re ta in s t h e English d i p h t h o n g / s u / in ' v in d o u z a ' o r u n d e r go es m o n o p h t h o n g i z a t i o n in 'v in d o z a ' ( w h ic h is j u s t i f i a b l e be c a u s e o f t h e s t r o n g la b ia lit y o f t h e Russian v o w e l 'o', w h i c h is n e a r ly d i p h t h o n g a l its elf). T h e d y n a m ic Russian stress m a k e s it p o s s ib le t o a c c e n t e i t h e r t h e p e n u l t i m a t e s y lla b le o r t h e last o n e : 'v in 'd o z a ' vs. 'v in d o 'z a '. A ll f o r m s e x c e p t f o r o n e are o f f e m i n i n e g e n d e r b u t e v e n t h e y d is p la y s o m e d i v e r s it y in d e c le n s io n : 'v in d a ', 'v in d o z a ', 'v in d o u z a ', 'v in d u s y a t i n a ' in f l e c t f o r case a c c o r d in g t o t h e f ir s t d e c le n s io n w h i l e ' v y n " in fle c ts a c c o r d in g t o t h e t h i r d d e c le n s io n (cf. La- c h u r 2 0 0 2 : 70, 7 6 ); o n l y ' v i n d y ' is a p l u r a l e t a n t u m n o u n . S im ila r ly t o 'v in d u s y a t n ik ' ( ' W i n d o w s u s e r ') , 'v in d u z y a t n ik ' ( ' W i n d o w s u s e r ') in (31), e x a m p le s (32) a n d (33) d e m o n s t r a t e t h e high d e r iv a t io n a l ca p a c it y o f Russian, w h i c h a d d s a w i d e v a r i e t y o f d e r iv a t io n a l affix e s t o t h e b o r r o w e d r o o ts - ' h a i r ' an d 'p r ic k ' in (32) a n d (33), re s p e c tiv e ly . T h e t h r e e w o r d s ' o p r i k e v a t '', ' o b k h a y r a t " , ' o b k h a y r a t's y a ' c o n t a in a n a tiv e Russian p r e fix, t h e m a t i c s u ffix , i n f i n it iv a l s u ffix ; in a d d i t i o n , 'o b k h a y r a t's y a ' c o n t a in s an a n t i- c a u s a t iv e r e f le x iv e s u ffix in its m o r p h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e :
H < > \ V t ' i v i / \i i Vi n c4w . Ah V s m > s i s
11
b i n i i i I z m l i s i . . . | g ]Table 1. T h e d e r iv a t io n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s e le c te d m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y a d a p t e d w o r d s
prefix r o o t t h e m a t ic suffix in fin itiv a l suffix postfix
o- -prik - (E 'prick') -eva- - t '
-ob- -kha yr- (E 'h a ir ') -a- - t '
-ob- -kha yr- (E 'h a ir ') -a- - t '- -sya
T he d e r iv a t io n a l p o w e r o f Russian e x e rc is ed o n l o a n w o r d s w a s i n v e s t i g a te d by J o c h y m - K u s z lik o w a ( 2 0 0 8 ), w h o a n a ly z e d d e r iv a t io n a l nests f o u n d ed o n t h e f o l l o w i n g le x e m e s : 'ask', 'd rin k ', 'fu c k ', 'use', 'g a m e ' a n d 'crazy' a n d f o u n d t h a t Russians m a k e use n o t o n ly o f n a t iv e affix e s b u t also o f fo r e i g n on es. She c o m m e n t s o n t h e d e r iv a t iv e s o f t h e v e r b 'f u c k ' in t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y :
A lth o u g h Russian y o u t h slang has been e n te r e d by English w o r d s t h a t are f o u n d e d on t h e offensiv e slang base fu c k , t h e d e riv a tio n a l nest in w h ic h w e fin d also f o re ig n f o r m a tiv e s fu n c tio n s in d e p e n d e n tly , p re s erv in g o n ly th e essential shades o f t h e sem antics o f t h e origin al w o r d [tra n s la tio n m ine]. (Jochym-Kuszlikowa 2008: 99)
To illu s t r a t e t h e high d e g r e e o f a d a p t a t i o n o f English lexical r o o t s as w e ll as affix es a n d t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h w h i c h such re s o u r c e s a re e x p lo it e d in t h e Russian le x ic on , le t us l o o k a t t h e d e r iv a t iv e s o f ' f u c k ' (cf. J o c h y m - K u s z lik o w a 20 0 8 : 9 9 - 1 0 1 , 106):
(34) v e r b a l d e r iv a tiv e s :
f a k a t ' [cpaKam b] (E 'fu c k ', RS ' t o ha ve sex')
fa k a t's y a [cpaKambCfi] (RS ' t o d o s o m e t h i n g f o r a lo n g t i m e , t o be sla ck ing o f f ' (pej.))
f a k n u t ' [cpaKHymb] (RS ' t o ha ve sexual in t e r c o u r s e (o n c e ) ')
o t f a c h i t ' [om c pc w um b ] (RS 1. ' t o ha ve sex w i t h sb' 2. ' t o r u d e ly t e ll sb off, t o c hase sb a w a y ')
o s t o f a c h i t ' [ocm ocfcaHum t>] (RS 'b e c o m e b o r in g ' )
p o d f a k n u t 's y a [noddpaK H ym bcn] (RS 't o use an o p p o r t u n i t y t o have sex')
p o d f a k iv a t 's y a [nodcfraKueambCR] (RS ' t o in c lin e sb t o e n t e r in t o an i n t i m a t e sexual r e l a t io n s h i p ')
p o f a k a t ' [nocfroKam b] (RS ' t o ha ve sex o n s ev e ral o c c a s io n s / t o e n ga ge in sex in te r c o u r s e o v e r a p e r io d o f t i m e ' )
p r ifa k iv a t's y a [np ucpaKueam bCP] (RS ' t o c h a t u p a g irl w i t h t h e h o p e o f e n t e r i n g in t o an i n t i m a t e sexual r e l a t io n s h i p ')
v y f a k iv a t 's y a [ e t ic paK ueam bca] (RS 1. ' t o be ag gre s s iv e t o w a r d s sb', 2. t o be g e t t i n g i n t o c o n f lic t w i t h sb')
z a fa k a t' [3acpaKamb], z a f a c h it ' [3acpcwumb] (RS ' t o be a re al b o re , a drag', 2. ' t o w i n d sb u p ')
zafakat' sya [3acpaKambcn] (RS 1. ' t o g e t d i r t y ' 2. 'to ge t c o n fu s e d by sth') (35) a d je c tiv a l d e r iv a t iv e s :
f a k a n n y y [cpaKOHHbiu] (RS 'v e r y bad, a w f u l ' )
f a k a n u t y y [cpaKaHymbiu], f a k n u t y y [cpaKHymbiu] (RS 'a b n o r m a l, in san e') (36) n o m in a l d e r iv a t iv e s :
f a k [qboK] (RS 1. ' t h e sex a c t ' 2. ' a n y t h in g t h a t refers t o sex') f a k t [cpaKm] (RS ' t h e sex a c t ')
f a k in g [cpaKUH2] ~ (RS ' s o m e t h i n g r e v o lt in g ' )
f a k a lo [ip a n a / i o ], fa k e l [cpane/i], f a k t [cpanm] (RS ' m a le sex o r g a n ') f a k e r [cpaKep}, f a k m e n [cpaKMeH] (RS 'a p r o m is c u o u s m a n , o n e w h o
likes t o g e t la id ')
f a k u s h n i k [cpOKyujHUK], f a k e r [cpanep], f a k a r ' [qboKopb] (RS 'a w o m a n iz e r')
f a k u k h a [cfiaKyxa], fa k u s h k a [cpanyujKa] (RS 1. 'a p r o s t i t u t e ', 2. 'a m is tress', 3. 'a n y w o m a n ' )
fa k u s h a [cpaKyuia] (RS 'a n y w o m a n ' )
faki [gbaKu] - (RS 's w e a r w o r d s ', ' f o u r - l e t t e r w o r d s ' ) fa k [qboK] (RS ' e x c la m a t io n o f dis gu s t, an ger, o r a n n o y a n c e ')
T he e x a m p le s lis te d in (3 4 ) - ( 3 6 ) in c lu d e t h r e e a l l o m o r p h s o f t h e r o o t : / f a k / , / f a k ' / , / f a t j ' / a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g n a t iv e a n d fo r e i g n d e r iv a t io n a l affix es (Tables 2 a n d 3, r e s p e c tiv e ly ) :
Table 2: N a tiv e d e r iv a t io n a l affix e s in t h e Russian d e r iv a t io n a l ne st f o u n d e d o n 'fuck'.
v e rb al d e riv ativ e s
prefix suffix postfix
ot- -a- -sya
p o d-
-nu-po-
-i-pri- y v a/iv a
- vy-
za-a d je c tiv za-a l d e riv za-ativ e s
prefix suffix postfix
- -nn-
-t-M i » t ł i » i V | / ( ( i \ i * . i i / i . A n V s a i > s i s « i S i 11 < 111 I n i i i ni . ..
nominal derivatives
prefix suffix postfix
- -0- - -al- -ush- -nik- -ar'- -ukh-
-k-Table 3: Foreign d e r iv a t io n a l affix es in t h e Russian d e r iv a t io n a l n e s t f o u n d e d on 'fu ck'. nominal derivatives prefix suffix - -ing- -er--m en-It is w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t English affix es a p p e a r o n ly in b o r r o w e d n o u n s ('fa k e r', ' f a k in g ') , w h e r e a s b o t h v e r b a l a n d a d je c tiv a l d e r iv a t iv e s in c lu d e n a t iv e affix es ( a lm o s t ) exclusiv ely . T h e it e m ' f a k m e n ' is d e r v iv e d w i t h ' - m e n ' , w h ic h J o c h y m - K u s z lik o w a ( 2 0 0 8 : 9 9 - 1 0 0 ) an alyzes as a s u ffix d e r iv in g t h e c o m p le x n o u n in Russian. In all t h e nests f o u n d e d o n 'ask', 'd rin k ', 'fu c k ', 'use', 'g a m e ' an d 'crazy' a n a ly z e d b y J o c h y m - K u s z lik o w a (2 0 0 8 ) n o v e r b is d e r iv e d w i t h t h e h e lp o f a f o r e i g n a ffix a n d o n ly a s in g le a d je c ti v e ' y u z a b e l 'n y y ' [f03a6e/ibHbiM] ( 'u s a b le ') c o n ta in s an English a ffix in its m o r p h o lo g ic a l s t r u c t u r e , t h e s u ffix -a b le . A c c o r d in g t o S h v e do v a ( 2 0 0 5 : 3 3 0) '- a b e l' n - ' ( 'u s e fu l, h a v in g t h e a b ili t y t o p e r f o r m t h e a c t io n d e n o t e d b y t h e d e r iv a t io n a l base') is a re s u lt o f t h e f u s io n o f t h e English '- a b le ' a n d t h e n a t iv e Russian s u ffix '-n-'. T h e s u ffix b e ga n t o be p r o d u c t i v e in Russian s ev e ral d e c a d e s ago, c o m b in i n g b o t h w i t h b o r r o w e d f o r e i g n a n d n a t iv e v e r b a l r o o ts (e.g., ' k o m f o r t a b e l ' n y y ' [K0M4>0pTa6e/ibHbm] ( 'c o m f o r t a b le ' ) , ' r e n t a b e l 'n y y ' [peHTa6e/ibHbm ] ( ' p r o f it a b le ') , ' t r a n s p o r t a b e l ' n y y ' [TpaHcnopia6e/ibHbm ] ( 'tr a n s p o r t a b l e ' ) , ' c h it a b e l 'n y y ' [HMTa6e/ibHbin] ( ' r e a d a b le ') , as o b s e r v e d by T ik h o n o v ( 1 9 8 5 a : 4 6 2 ) a n d T i k h o n o v ( 1 9 8 5 b : 36, 254, 37 9), a n d t h u s its n o v e l t y s ta tu s is d is p u ta b le . A m o n g t h e d e r iv a t iv e s in (3 4 )-(3 6 ) t h e r e are also t w o e x a m p le s o f b l e n d ing: 1) t h e w o r d ' f a k t ' ( ' t h e sex a c t ') in (36) is a r e s u lt o f t h e a m a lg a m a t io n o f ' f u c k ' a n d 'a c t '; 2) t h e w o r d ' o s t o f a c h i t " ( ' b e c o m e b o r i n g ' ) in (34) is a c o m b i n a t i o n o f ' o s t o - ' f r o m ' o s t o l e t i t " ( ' b e c o m e b o r i n g ' ) a n d ' f a c h i t " (a b o u n d v e r b a l f o r m a t i o n based o n 'fa k ' (cf. t h e p r e fix e d v e r b s ' o t - f a c h i t " , 'z a - f a c h it '' in (34)), w h ic h r e in f o r c e s t h e e m o t i v e v a lu e o f t h e f ir s t c o m p o n e n t o f t h e
l \ l i / v S ł I C ) l < / « \
b l e n d . 10 B le n d in g - a s it u a t io n w h e r e b y p h o n e t i c f r a g m e n t s o f t w o ( o r m o r e ) basic w o r d s are p u t t o g e t h e r t o m a k e a s in gle le x e m e ( S z y m a n e k 1 9 9 8 : 99) - is a w o r d - m a n u f a c t u r i n g m e c h a n is m w h ic h d o e s n o t b e lo n g t o t h e d e r i v a t i o n a l m e a n s n o r m a l l y e m p l o y e d in c r e a t i n g n e w w o r d s in Russian. T h e use o f t h is m e c h a n is m s h o w s t h a t y o u n g Russians e x p e r i m e n t w i t h la n g u a g e n o t o n ly b y a d d i n g n a tiv e o r f o r e i g n affix e s t o t h e a d a p t e d f o r e i g n ro o ts , b u t also b y i m p l e m e n t i n g w o r d - m a n u f a c t u r i n g m e a n s f r o m o u t s id e t h e d e r iv a t io n a l r e p e r t o i r e o f t h e i r o w n la n g u a g e . 11
T he w o r d 'fa k e l' ( ' m a le sex o r g a n ') liste d in (36) is a s e p a r a te case. T he o r ig in a l m e a n in g o f t h e Russian w o r d 'fakel', an o ld b o r r o w i n g f r o m G e r m a n (cf. Dal' n .d .) is 'to r c h '. T h e s e c o n d a r y m e a n in g d iscusse d h e r e has p r o b a b ly b e e n c o in e d o n t h e basis o f t h e p h o n o lo g ic a l o v e r la p o f t h e w o r d s 'fa k e l' a n d 'fa k ' w h i c h t r ig g e r e d t h e s e m a n t ic a s s o c ia tio n o f ' t o r c h ' a n d ' m a le sex o r g a n ' by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s h a p e o f t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s .
J , ll l N A l I I H k l l
S
In t h is p a p e r I ha ve e x a m in e d a s e le c t io n o f r e c e n t b o r r o w i n g s f r o m English in t o Russian slang, fo c u s in g o n t h e a d a p t a t i o n pro c es s e s t h a t a c c o m p a n y t h e pro c e s s o f b o r r o w i n g by t h e y o u n g g e n e r a t io n b e lo n g i n g t o a c u l t u r e t h a t p r o m o t e s e n r i c h m e n t o f its lexical re s o u rc e s w i t h t h e h e lp o f fo r e i g n r o o ts a n d affix es, w h o s p e a k a la n g u a g e w h i c h s h o w s r e m a r k a b l e f le x i b i l i t y in a d a p t i n g t h e n e w lexical m a t e r i a l t o t h e s t r ic t u r e s o f its g r a p h e m ic , p h o ne tic , p h o n o lo g ic a l, m o r p h o lo g ic a l , s e m a n t ic as w e ll as p r a g m a t i c rules. The r e m a r k a b l e " f r e e d o m " t h a t can be o b s e r v e d e v e n w i t h a s in g le lexical r o o t, il lu s t r a t e d h e r e w i t h t h e r e c e n t b o r r o w i n g ' v i n d o u z a ' / ' v i n d o z a ' ( ' W i n d o w s ' ) a n d ' f a k a t " ' t o fuc k ', raises q u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e r ig h t o f o w n e r s h i p in la n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e . T h e q u e s t io n w h e t h e r English w o r d s t h a t are b o r r o w e d in t o Russian a n d u n d e r g o d iv e rs e pro c es s e s o f a d a p t a t i o n at b o t h t h e g r a m m a tic a l, i.e., g r a p h o - p h o n o lo g ic a l, d e r iv a t io n a l a n d in f l e c t io n a l p la n e , an d t h e s e m a n t i c / p r a g m a t i c p la n e still b e lo n g t o t h e s o u rc e la n g u a g e c a n n o t be
10 Jochym-Kuszlikowa (2008: 99-101, 106) does n o t inclu de 'o s to fa c h it" ('becom e bor ing') in th e deriv atio nal nest; however, this w o rd is recorded in Yelistratov (2006: 265). The first c o m p o n e n t o f th e ble nding 'o s t o le t it " ('b ecom e borin g') is derived fo rm 'stole tie ' ('c entury'), whose long dura tio n evokes associations w it h tediousness and m onotony.
11 Blending has recently started c o n querin g th e Russian language; still, its outcom es are ofte n tre a te d by Russian linguists as caiques f r o m English (e.g., 'tru d o g o lik ' [Tpy- floro/iMK] 'w o rkaholic'), com pounds (in terfixatio ns, e.g., 'tru d -o -g o lik ';'-o '- being an interfix, 'tru d - ' and '-golik' being derivatio nal bases) o r suffixations (where '-golik' in 'tru d o g o lik ' is regarded as a b o rro w e d suffix); however, some Russian researchers are inclined to classify such fo rm a tio n s as blends (cf. Lavrova 2010: 230).
* l ( > t V c i v ł /4 / i V i n j i / i . A > « \ n a i ' s i v 1 1 S i 1 1 < 1 1 1 ! m i i w . . .
6 5
a n s w e r e d u n a m b ig u o u s l y . T he i n d e t e r m i n a c y m a y be o v e r c o m e i f w e d o n o t t a k e t h e v i e w t h a t la n g u a g e is s e p a r a te f r o m its users, b u t r a t h e r see la n g u a g e a n d its s pe ak e rs as r e la t e d s y n e c d o c h ic a lly (PART-FOR-WHOLE) a n d in v o k e t h e s y n e c d o c h e LANGUAGE FOR THE CULTURE THAT SUSTAINS IT/ITS SPEAKERS. L o o k e d a t f r o m t h is a n gle, la n g u a g e as a n o n - li v in g e n t i t y c a n n o t 'o w n ', 'possess', 'h a v e ' o r 'c o m e in t o p o s s es s ion o f s o m e t h i n g ' in t h e p r i m a r y sense o f t h e s e e x p re s s io n s . It is o n ly l a n g u a g e users w h o can be o w n e r s a n d t h u s it is n o t u n r e a s o n a b le t o ask w h o " o w n s " a p a r t i c u la r lexical it e m , e.g., is ' k h o b b y ' [x o 6 6 b i ] w r i t t e n in C y rillic an English w o r d ? Is it Russian? Is it English w h e n used as d e n o t i n g a p a s t im e a n d Russian w h e n d e n o t i n g t h e m a l e sex o r g a n ? As in d ic a t e d b y t h e q u e s t io n ' W h o s e la n g u a g e is it a n y w a y ? ', t h e issue o f o w n e r s h i p is o f p a r t i c u la r re le v a n c e t o English, t h e lin g u a f r a n c a o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d , since so m a n y o f its w o r d s " h a v e g o n e a b r o a d " , ha ve b e e n " e m b e z z l e d " a n d - like p la s tic in e - ha ve b e e n s h a p e d t o d e n o t e s o m e t h in g else. H o w e v e r, t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f la n g u a g e is c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d la n gu ages b e lo n g t o t h e p e o p le ( s ) w h o use t h e m f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n - as lo ng as t h e y se rv e t h e i r spe ake rs, t h e q u e s t io n o f o w n e r s h i p is f o r t u n a t e l y n o t le gal, b u t a c a d e m ic . Since n o lin g u is t ic s y s te m p r o v id e s its users w i t h s u f f ic ie n t m e a n s t o f u lf il all t h e i r e v e r - c h a n g in g c o m m u n i c a t i v e ne ed s , as o b s e r v e d a lr e a d y by R o m a n J a k o b s o n (cf. M a ń c z a k - W o h lf e ld 2 0 1 0 : 14 -1 5 ), b o r r o w i n g s h o u l d be see n n o t as a f a c t o r t h a t c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f la n gu ag e, b u t r a t h e r as a m e a n s f o r p r o v id i n g its s p e a k e rs w i t h a t o o l e n h a n c in g e f f e c t iv e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , as s h o w n in t h e p r e s e n t analysis o f Russian slang, b o r r o w i n g also m a n if e s t s t h e h u m a n n e e d t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h la n g u a g e a n d r e fle c ts d i r e c t ly t h e c r e a tiv e p o t e n t i a l o f la ng uag e.
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