English in action: language contact and language variation

English in Action

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English in Action

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a n g u a g e

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c n t a g t

A N D

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Kraków 2011

Editorial Council o f th e Andrzej Frycz M odrzewski Krakow University:

Klemens Budzowski, Maria Kapiszewska, Zbigniew Maciąg, Jacek M. Majchrowski

Reviewer: Dr hab. Elżbieta Chrzanowska-Kluczewska, prof. UJ

Cover design: Oleg A le k s e jp ^ it ;

/

Proof-reading: Ewa W illim

ISBN 978-83-7571-170-7

C o p yrig h t© by Andrzej Frycz M odrzewski Krakow University Kraków 2011

All Rights Reserved. No part o f this publication o r its e n tire ty may be reproduced, tran s m itte d o r stored in any m an n e r t h a t allows repeated use in any fo rm by any means, electronic, mechanical, copying, recording o r o th e r w ith o u t th e express w r itte n permission o f copyrig ht owners.

Andrzej Frycz M odrzewski Krakow University www.ka.edu.pl

Publisher:

Krakow Society fo r Education: AFM Publishing House /

Krakowskie Towarzystwo Edukacyjne sp. z o.o. - Oficyna Wydawnicza AFM, Kraków 2011

Bookshop: U Frycza

Andrzej Frycz M odrzewski Krakow University Gustawa Herlinga-Grudzińskiego 1, 30-705 Kraków phone/fax: (12) 252 45 93

e-mail: ksiegarnia@kte.pl

Technical Lay-out Editor: Oleg Aleksejczuk

CONTENTS

P u r AC r ... 7

Pa r t 1 : La n g u a g e c o n t a c t

M a r t a D ą b r o w s k a

H in d i-E n g lis h C o d e - S w it c h in g as a C o m m u n i t y o f P rac tic e M a r k e r .. 13 I w o n a Krok S e le c te d English B o r r o w in g s in P o p u la r C o n t e m p o r a r y Russian Press o n t h e E x a m p le o f O g o n y o k ... 43 K rz y s z tof Ozga M o y a V a y f Y u z a e t V in do z u. A n A n a ly s is o f S e le c te d English B o r r o w in g s in S t a n d a r d a n d Slang R u s s i a n ... 53 M a r c i n Z a b a w a

Is Polish Really B eing F lo o d e d w i t h English B o r r o w in g s ? On t h e in f l u e n c e o f English o n W r i t t e n an d S po k e n Polish ( W i t h Specia l E m ph asis o n t h e Polish S p o k e n b y Poles Living

in G r e a t B r i t a i n ) ... 69

P a r t 2 : L a n g u a g e V a r i a t i o n

Jerzy F re u n d lic h

A m e r i c a n i z a t io n o f B ritis h English: A s p e c ts o f L in g u is tic C h an ge

in t h e Spe ech o f E d u c a te d B ritis h S p e a k e r s ... 89 M a r t a Ruda On t h e In t e r a c tio n s B e t w e e n Core G r a m m a r a n d t h e P e r ip h e r y in In t r a la n g u a g e S y n ta c tic V a r ia t io n . T h e Case o f M is s in g O b je c ts in E n g l i s h ... 99 Ewa W il l i m U n iv e rs a l G r a m m a r , P a r a m e te r s o f V a r ia t io n an d t h e M o r p h o s y n t a x o f W o r l d E n g lis h e s ... 117 No t e s A r o u i Au t h o r s... 135

T h e p r e s e n t m o n o g r a p h i c v o l u m e c o n t a in s s ev e n s t u d ie s t h a t d e a l w i t h t h e e v e r - c h a n g in g n a t u r e o f la n g u a g e . C h a n g e a n d v a r i a t io n are so m u c h a t t h e h e a r t o f la n g u a g e t h a t it c o u ld w e ll be said t h a t t h e s t o r y o f la n g u a g e is t h e s t o r y o f c o n t in u o u s in v e n t i o n a n d r e - in v e n t io n . T he e m p ir ic a l base f o r t h e s tu d ie s in c lu d e d in t h is m o n o g r a p h is English, w h ic h has b e c o m e t h e w o r ld ' s le a d in g la n g u a g e s p o k e n a r o u n d t h e g lo b e a n d an e s s e n tia l t o o l f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l e c o n o m y , scie nces, a r t, a n d i n t e r a c ­ t io n s across lin g u is tic , c u l tu r a l a n d n a t io n a l b o u n d a r i e s . As a re s u lt o f its g lo b a liz a t io n , it is d e v e l o p i n g n e w d ia le c ts a n d v a r ie tie s , a n d it is c o m i n g in t o c o n t a c t w i t h m o r e a n d m o r e la n g u a g e s a n d c u l tu r e s all t h e t i m e . W h i l e t h e lexical (an d t o a f a r le sser d e g r e e also g r a m m a t ic a l ) re s o u rc e s o f English are re a d ily d r a w n u p o n by t h e la n g u a g e s t h a t English c o m e s i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h , also t h e b e n c h m a r k r e f e r e n c e v a r ie t ie s o f English are p r o n e t o c h a n g e b o t h f r o m w i t h i n a n d as a r e s u lt o f la n g u a g e c o n t a c t . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f social, s it u a t io n a l, as w e ll as re g io n a l v a r ie t ie s o n b e n c h m a r k v a r ie t ie s o f English raise q u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f lin g u is tic v a r i a b i lit y as w e ll as q u e s t io n s o f lin g u is tic n o r m s o r s t a n d a r d s o f n a tiv e n e s s . T h e s tu d ie s in c lu d e d in t h is v o l u m e a d d re s s s o m e o f t h e s e q u e s t io n s , fo c u s in g o n t w o m a in t h e m e s : c o n t a c t - in d u c e d la n g u a g e c h a n g e a n d t h e n a t u r e o f ( m o r p h o ) s y n t a c t i c v a r i ­ a b ili t y in la n g u a g e . M o s t o f t h e m are based o n n a t u r a l is t ic c o r p u s d a ta a n d / o r d i c t i o n a r y - b a s e d searches.

T he t w o b r o a d re s e a rc h t h e m e s : h o w English e n r ic h e s an d in v ig o r a te s t h e lexical re s o u rc e s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s a n d h o w it e x e rts in fl u e n c e o n t h e c o n v e r s a tio n a l style s o f s pe ak e rs using English as t h e i r s e c o n d o r fo r e i g n la n ­ gu age, a n d h o w t h e s t a n d a r d o r r e g is t e r - n e u t r a l v a r ie t ie s o f English can be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e c o n t e x t s o f use as w e ll h o w la n g u a g e v a r ia n t s are b o r n in la n g uag e, are a r r a n g e d h e re in t o t w o s e p a r a te p a rts , Part 1 o n la n g u a g e c o n t a c t a n d Part 2 o n in t r a lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n .

l i ii \ < i

T h e t o p i c o f la n g u a g e c o n t a c t in Part 1 is u n d e r t a k e n in t h e s tu d ie s by

M a r t a D ą b ro w s k a , Iw o n a Krok, Krzysztof Ozga a n d M a r c in Z a b a w a , w h o

a d d re s s t h e in f l u e n c e o f English o n s e le c te d as p e c ts o f la n g u a g e m ix in g a n d la n g u a g e b o r r o w i n g . In h e r r ic h ly s u p p o r t e d , d e t a il e d s t u d y o f la n g u a g e m ix i n g t h a t can be o b s e r v e d in t h e po s ts t h a t n a t iv e s pe ak e rs o f H in d i, fa n s o f H in d i f ilm s and a f a m o u s H in d i m o v i e s ta r p u t o n his F a c e b o o k w a lls , M a r t a D ą b ro w s k a n o t o n ly ta k e s t h e r e a d e r o n a j o u r n e y t h r o u g h t i m e t o e x p la in t h e c o m p lic a t e d lin g u is t ic s it u a t io n o f p r e s e n t- d a y Ind ia a n d t h e s ta tu s o f English in t h is m u l t i ­ c u l t u r a l a n d m u l t i - lin g u i s t i c c o m m u n i t y , b u t also o v e r v ie w s t h e d e b a te o v e r c o d e - s w i t c h in g in r e c e n t s o c i o li n g u is t ic li t e r a t u r e , in t r o d u c e s a f o r m a l clas­ s if ic a tio n o f s w itc h e s , a n d lo o k s a t t h e i r p r a g m a t i c value s. T h e m a in c o n c lu ­ sion t h a t she re a c h e s o n t h e basis o f a c a r e fu l, c o m p r e h e n s i v e analysis o f a w e a l t h o f d a ta g a t h e r e d f r o m t h e F a c e b o o k po s ts a d d r e s s e d t o Shah Rukh Khan, is t h a t t h e s e s w itc h e s f u n c t i o n m a i n ly as d is c o u rs e m a rk e rs , f a c il it a t ­ in g p e r s o n - t o - p e r s o n lin g u is t ic in t e r a c t io n , e s p e c ia lly in its p h a t ic c o m m u ­ n io n as p ec ts , a n d r e f le c t t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e s tr a te g ie s c h a r a c t e r is tic o f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f p r a c tic e o f I n d ia n F a c e b o o k users.

T h e o t h e r s t u d ie s i n c lu d e d in t h is p a r t d e a l n o t w i t h la n g u a g e m ix in g , b u t w i t h b o r r o w i n g as a s o u r c e o f g r e a t e r w e a l t h a n d a m e a n s o f in v ig o r a t in g t h e lexic al re s o u rc e s o f t h e la n g u a g e s u n d e r s c r u t in y : Russian an d Polish.

Iw o n a Krok's a n d Krzysztof Ozga's c o n t r i b u t i o n s are c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e

im p a c t t h a t t h e English la n g u a g e has on c o n t e m p o r a r y Russian, a n aly z ed o n t h e basis o f d a ta g a t h e r e d f r o m a p o p u l a r m a g a z in e in t h e case o f I w o n a Krok's s t u d y a n d ( m o s t ly ) o n a d i c t i o n a r y s earch in K rz y s z to f Ozga's in q u iry . B o th t h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s p o i n t o u t t h e s u r p r is in g ease w i t h w h i c h t h e lexical re s o u rc e s o f English are used t o e n r ic h a n d in v ig o r a t e Russian, b o t h s t a n ­ d a rd a n d n o n - s t a n d a r d (slang), t o f i t n e w id eas an d d e v e l o p m e n t s as w e ll as t o m e e t t h e Russian s p e a k e rs ' n e e d f o r lin g u is t ic n o v e l t y a n d e x p r e s s iv e ­ ness. In a d d i t i o n , b o t h s tu d ie s s h o w t h a t b o r r o w i n g as a p ro cess ex ceeds s im p le i m p o r t a t i o n o f r e a d y - m a d e lexical it e m s in t o t h e t a r g e t la n g uag e. O n c e d o m e s t ic a t e d , English m o r p h e m e s are re c y c le d o v e r a n d o v e r again in t h e Russian lexic al m o r p h o l o g i c a l c o m p o n e n t t o p r o d u c e m a n y r e la t e d n a t iv e f o r m a t i o n s , b o t h w o r d s a n d exp re s s io n s . M a r c in Z ab a w a 's s t u d y deals w i t h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f English o n c o n t e m p o ­ r a r y Polish. W h i l e d a ta f r o m b o t h w r i t t e n an d s p o k e n Polish g a t h e r e d in an I n t e r n e t - b a s e d s ea rc h a re ta k e n in t o a c c o u n t, t h e fo c u s is o n t h e t y p e s a n d f r e q u e n c y o f English lo a n w o r d s in t h e w r i t t e n po s ts t h a t a p p e a r on t h e I n t e r ­ n e t m es s a ge b o a r d s use d b o t h by Poles liv in g a t h o m e a n d b y r e c e n t Polish im m i g r a n t s t o G r e a t B r ita in . As his s t u d y s h o w s , English l o a n w o r d s a re used m o r e o f t e n in i n f o r m a l w r i t t e n Polish t h a n in s p o k e n Polish, w h e t h e r t h e c o n t e x t o f use is P olan d o r G r e a t B rita in , w i t h Poles li v in g in G r e a t B r itia n r e ­

I l l I A t I

s o r t in g t o English w o r d s m o r e o f t e n t h a n Poles liv in g a t h o m e . M a r c i n Z a b a ­ w a links t h is f a c t t o a g r e a t e r in f l u e n c e o f t h e English v o c a b u la r y in a n a tiv e English s e t t in g o f la n g u a g e use, G r e a t B rita in b e in g t h e case u n d e r study.

T he t h r e e s tu d ie s g a t h e r e d in Part 2 d e a l w i t h s o m e o f t h e fa c t o r s t h a t m a y be r e s p o n s ib le f o r in tr a lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n w i t h i n English. In c o n t r a s t t o t r a d i t i o n a l d ia le c t o lo g ic a I a n d s o c i o lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n is t s t u d ie s o n English v a r ie t ie s an d s i t u a t io n a l v a r ia n ts , w h ic h have m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d t h e m s e lv e s w i t h p h o n o lo g ic a l a n d lexical d iffe re n c e s , t h e t h r e e s t u d ie s i n c lu d e d h e re all d e a l w i t h ( m o r p h o ) s y n t a c t i c v a r i a t io n .

Jerzy Freundlich lo o k s a t s o m e s e le c te d g r a m m a t ic a l c h a n g e s in t h e la n ­

g u ag e used b y e d u c a te d n a t iv e s pe ak e rs o f English t h a t ha ve ta k e n place o v e r t h e pa st s ev e ral d e c a d e s a n d tr a c e s t h e i r o r ig in s t o t h e in fl u e n c e o f t h e A m e r i c a n v a r i e t y o f English o n s t a n d a r d B ritis h English. A c c o r d in g t o h im , t h e s e in flu e n c e s can be lin k e d t o c o m p le x s o c i o - c u l tu r a l f a c t o r s a n d t h e i m ­ p o r t a n c e o f t h e A m e r i c a n v a r i e t y o f English n o t o n ly on u n r e la t e d la nguages, b u t also o n m o d e r n B ritis h English. I n te r e s tin g ly , t h e A m e r i c a n s ig n a tu r e s on B rit is h English are c u r r e n t l y e x c e e d in g b e y o n d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e lexical s to c k o f English, in f l u e n c in g s o m e g r a m m a t ic a l r e s o u r c e s o f e d u c a t e d n a tiv e s pe ak e rs o f B ritis h English.

M a r t a Ruda lo oks in t o t h e in tr a lin g u is t ic s y n t a c tic v a r i a t io n t h a t can be

o b s e r v e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f o b j e c t d r o p in t h e n e u t r a l a n d s i t u a t i o n a l l y - b o u n d reg is te rs o f ( B ritis h ) English, w h ic h she in v e s tig a te s in r e f e r e n c e m a i n ly t o t h e r e c ip e register. W h i l e t h e o b s e r v e d v a r i a t io n in t h e a v a ila b ilit y o f t h e v e r b 's im p l i c i t o b j e c t w i t h s p e c ific r e f e r e n c e t o be le ft u n ­ a r t ic u la t e d has b e e n a r g u e d in t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e t o rev e a l d i ff e re n c e s in t h e s y n t a c tic sy s tem s o f t h e n e u t r a l a n d t h e r e c ip e regis ters, M a r t a Ruda a rg ue s f o r a p e r f o r m a n c e - b a s e d v i e w o f n o n - o v e r t o b je c ts in s uch c o n t e x t s a n d relates o b je c t d r o p t o t h e g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e e c o n o m y o f li n g u is ­ t ic c o m p u t a t i o n t h a t d i c t a t e t h a t im p l i c i t a r g u m e n t s be p r o n o u n c e d o n ly if ne c e s s a ry f o r in t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e i r c o n t e x t s o f use.

Finally, Ewa W illim e x p lo re s t h e m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c v a r i a t io n o b s e r v e d across t h e m a n y r e g io n a l v a r ie t ie s o f English a n d discusses h o w b o t h t h e im p r e s s iv e ra n g e o f s y n t a c tic d i f f e r e n c e s across d i s t i n c t la n g u a g e s a n d t h e im p r e s s iv e ra n g e o f m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c d i ff e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e s ta n d a r d an d n o n - s t a n d a r d v a r i e t ie s o f English can be a p p r o a c h e d a n d e x p la in e d in t h e C h o m s k y a n p e r s p e c tiv e o f la n g u a g e , w h i c h ta k e s t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m o d u l e o f t h e h u m a n c o g n i ti v e s y s te m t h a t is d e d i c a t e d t o la n g u a g e t o be s h a p e d b o t h b y s o m e u n iv e rs a l m e c h a n is m s a n d f e a tu r e s c o m m o n t o all in d iv i d u a l la n g u a g e s a n d b y s o m e f e a t u r e s t h a t a re le ft u n d e r s p e c i f i e d and t h u s a s o u rc e o f lin g u is tic v a r ia b ilit y . In t h is p e r s p e c tiv e , lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n is a r e s u lt o f t h e id io s y n c r a t ic d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e w a y s in w h ic h t h e u n iv e rs a l set o f g r a m m a t ic a l f e a tu r e s can be rea liz e d across la ng u a g e s a n d w i t h i n in d i v i d ­

I l l I \ < l

ual la ng u a g e s . U n d e r s p e c i f i c a t io n can be a r g u e d t o r e s u lt in t h e e m e r g e n c e o f v a r ia n t s , each o f w h i c h m a y be as s o c ia te d w i t h a h o s t o f u s a g e - r e la te d fa c to rs , s uch as s o c i o lin g u is t ic c o n n o t a t i o n s , ease o f access an d j u d g m e n t s o f a p p r o p r ia t e n e s s . W h i l e on t h e fa c e o f it la n g u a g e v a r i a t io n is im p re s s iv e , it is n e i t h e r w i t h o u t lim it s n o r u n p r e d ic t a b le , c o n t r a r y t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s ta n c e o n t h is issue in t y p o lo g ic a l a n d v a r i a t io n is t lingu is tic s .

T h e ideas p r e s e n te d in t h is v o l u m e w i l l h o p e f u l l y p r o v o k e in t e r e s t in g q u e s t io n s a n d in s p ir e f u r t h e r rese arch .

Part 1

Marta Dąbrowska

Jag'iellonian University in Krakow

IHINDII-ENGLI5 H C€DE=SWIIYCIHING

A S A € € M M ! L N I I ir r

€ f PRACTICE

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Poniższa analiza d o ty c z y zjawiska prze łą cza n ia ko d ó w , c h a ra k t e r y ­ zu ją ce go s tra te g ie k o m u n ik a c y jn e u ż y t k o w n ik ó w i w s p ó ln o t d w u j ę ­ zycznych. Z ja w is k o t o o m a w ia n e je s t w o p a rc iu o ję z y k m e d ió w e le k ­ tro n ic z n y c h (na p rz y k ła d z ie p o rta lu s p o łe c z n o ś c io w e g o Facebook) ja k o w y z n a c z n ik tzw . w s p ó ln o t d zia ła n ia . S tu d iu m p rz e d s ta w ia p o ­ k ró tc e h is to rię oraz t y p o lo g ię b a d ań nad z ja w is k ie m przełą czania k o d ó w p o d w z g lę d e m je g o f o r m y g ra m a ty c z n e j oraz p e łn io n y c h przez t o z ja w is k o fu n k c ji, o m a w ia ta kże p o d o b ie ń s t w a i różn ice p o ­ m ię d z y p rz e łą c z a n ie m k o d ó w a z a p o ż yc z en ia m i ję z y k o w y m i. Część a n a lity c z n a o b e jm u j e kla syfika cję p o s t ó w p isanych z w y k o r z y s ta n ie m przełą czania k o d ó w p o m ię d z y ję z y k ie m h in d i a ję z y k ie m a n g ie ls k im , z e b ra n ych na je d n e j ze s tro n p o ś w ię c o n y c h z n a n e m u a k t o r o w i kina in d yjs k ie g o , na g r u p y przełą czeń p o z a z d a n io w y c h , m ię dz y z d a - n io w y c h oraz w e w n ą t r z z d a n io w y c h , p rz e d s ta w ia ta kże o m ó w ie n ie ze b ra n y c h p r z y k ła d ó w p o d w z g lę d e m ich s t r u k t u r y g ra m a ty c z n e j, p o p ra w n o ś c i, oraz f u n k c ji e le m e n t ó w w y r a ż o n y c h w ję z y ku a n g ie l­ skim i w h in d i. II. In t r o d u c t i o n T he p h e n o m e n o n o f c o d e - s w i t c h in g (CS) is m u c h m o r e w i d e s p r e a d in o u r e v e r y d a y life t h a n users o f la n g u a g e s realize. It m a y a p p e a r in a n y f a c e t o f s pe ec h , be it la n g u a g e , d ia le c t, r e g is t e r o r s ty le . For in s ta n c e , a n y t i m e w e w is h t o g r e e t a p e r s o n w e d o n o t k n o w , w e c h o o s e a m o r e f o r m a l s ty le o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a n w h e n w e g r e e t o u r b e s t f r ie n d . Thus, w e w i ll c o d e ­ s w itc h b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t styles. This is w h a t ea ch o f us e x p e r ie n c e s in o u r e v e r y d a y e x is te n c e . N o t e v e r y o n e , h o w e v e r , has a c h a n c e t o c o d e - s w i t c h b e ­

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t w e e n d i f f e r e n t d ia le c ts , n o t t o m e n t i o n d i f f e r e n t la ng uag es , as t h is r e q u ir e s at le ast a m i n i m u m d e g r e e o f b id ia le c ta lis m o r b i lin g u a lis m (cf. M a c n a m a r a 1967 , H a m e r s a n d Bla nc 1989 ). This le vel o f c o d e - s w i t c h in g is t h e r e f o r e l i m ­ ite d t o o n ly a c e r t a i n p e r c e n ta g e o f s pe ak e rs in a c o u n t r y like, e.g., Poland, w h i c h is o f f ic ia lly m o n o li n g u a l , w i t h o n ly o n e la n g u a g e re c o g n iz e d n a t i o n ­ ally. M o s t c o u n t r ie s in t h e w o r l d , h o w e v e r , are f o r m a l l y a c k n o w le d g e d t o be bi- o r e v e n m u l t i l i n g u a l s tates ( W a r d h a u g h 19 9 1 , T ru d g ill 19 9 5 ), a n d in c o n ­ s e q u e n c e a c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n o f m e m b e r s o f t h o s e s o c ie tie s w ill u n d e r c e r ­ t a in c ir c u m s ta n c e s m a k e use o f m o r e t h a n o n e la n g u a g e s y s te m . D e p e n d in g o n t h e c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e users o f t h o s e la n g u a g e s f i n d th e m s e lv e s , t h e y w i ll s e le c t o n e o r t h e o t h e r la n g u a g e . Yet, as p r a c tic e v e r y o f t e n s h o w s , it is n o t u n c o m m o n f o r t h e t w o la n g u a g e s t o be used in o n e s t r e t c h o f c o n v e r s a ­ t io n . Such a s it u a t io n c o u ld be b e t t e r d e s c r ib e d as c o d e - m ix i n g ( W a r d h a u g h 1991 ). This is c e r t a i n ly t h e case in a c o u n t r y like Ind ia , w h i c h is o n e o f t h e m o s t m u l t i l i n g u a l c o u n t r ie s in t h e w o r l d . T he s p e e c h b e h a v io r o f I n d ia n Fa- c e b o o k users in p a r t i c u la r w i l l be t h e fo c u s o f analysis in t h is a rtic le .

91. A n O V E t V lE H I f 4 4 11 - S H I M I I M STUDIES C o d e - s w it c h in g w a s f ir s t r e c o g n iz e d as a lin g u is t ic p h e n o m e n o n w o r t h a sys­ t e m a t i c d e s c r ip t io n in t h e 1970s. T h e f ir s t m e a n in g f u l d is c u s s io n w a s o f f e r e d by B lo m a n d G u m p e r z (1 9 7 2 ) f o l l o w i n g t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s in t h e v illa g e o f H e m n e s b e r g e t in N o r w a y . H a v in g o b s e r v e d t h e c o n t e x t in w h ic h t h e local in h a b it a n t s c h o s e t o s p e a k B o k m a l as o p p o s e d t o R a n a m a l, t h e re s e a rc h e rs s u g g e s te d t h e n o w w e l l - k n o w n d iv is io n o f CS in t o s i t u a t i o n a l c o d e - s w itc h in g ( d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s i t u a t io n a l c o n t e x t o f in t e r a c t io n ) , m e t a p h o r i c a l c o d e ­ s w i t c h in g (in w h i c h t h e t o p i c i t s e l f d e c id e s w h i c h c o d e is m o s t a p p r o p r ia t e

t o discuss said t o p i c in) as w e ll as c o n v e r s a t i o n a l c o d e - s w itc h in g , o t h e r w i s e k n o w n as c o d e - m ix in g . T ru d g ill ( 2 0 0 3 : 23) s ta te s t h a t c o d e - m ix i n g is a " p r o ­ cess w h e r e b y s p e a k e rs in d u lg e in c o d e - s w i t c h in g b e t w e e n la ng u a g e s o f such r a p id i t y a n d d e n s ity , e v e n w i t h i n s e n te n c e s a n d phrases, t h a t it is n o t rea lly po s s ib le t o say a t a n y g iv e n t i m e w h i c h la n g u a g e t h e y a re s p e a k in g ." W h a t f o l l o w e d w e r e s tu d ie s w h o s e m a j o r aim s c o u ld be d iv id e d in to t w o m a in c a te g o r ie s : firs tly , t h e d is c u s s io n o f t h e g r a m m a t ic a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o d e - s w i t c h e d phrases, a n d w h a t f o ll o w s , t h e analysis o f a n y s t r u c t u r a l c o n s t r a in ts d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s s ib ilit y f o r c e r t a in e l e m e n t s t o be s w i tc h e d b e t w e e n t w o g iv e n la ng uag es , a n d se c o n d ly , t h e social fa c t o r s m o t i v a t i n g t h e s w i t c h in g b e t w e e n t w o lin g u is t ic cod es . T h e m o s t w i d e l y r e c o g n iz e d s tu d ie s o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l a s p e c t o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n are t h e p a p e rs b y M y - e r s - S c o tto n ( 1 9 9 3 b , 19 95 , 2 0 0 2 a , 2 0 0 9 ), t h e a u t h o r o f t h e M a t r i x La nguage F ram e (1 9 9 3 b , 2 0 0 2 a ), a m o d e l w h i c h d is tin g u is h e s b e t w e e n t h e so-ca lle d M a t r i x Language, i.e., t h e la n g u a g e w h ic h p r o v id e s t h e u n d e r ly in g g r a m ­

1 INI H M I ISI ł < I I - S » 11< I IN< V \ A D jH H I M I ' 4 i l 1 I VI 1 1 ( 1 ' U l I I I I 1 5

m a t ic a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o n v e r s a ti o n a l t u r n , a n d t h e E m b e d d e d Language, i.e., t h e o n e w h i c h is in s e r t e d in t o t h e M a t r i x Lang uag e c o n t e x t . O t h e r r e ­ s e a rc h e rs ha ve a p p r o a c h e d t h e p h e n o m e n o n d iff e r e n t ly . O n e o f t h e f ir s t t o an alyze t h e a s p e c t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s w itc h e s w a s P op la c k ( 1 9 8 0 ), w h o a r ­ g u e d t h a t s w itc h e s m a y o c c u r o n ly at places w h e r e t h e M a t r i x La ng uag e a n d t h e E m b e d d e d La ng uag e are e q u i v a le n t in t e r m s o f t h e i r s t r u c t u r e . P opla ck (19 8 0 , 1 9 8 1 ) also in t r o d u c e d t h e basic t y p o l o g y o f s w i tc h e s in t e r m s o f t h e place w h e r e t h e y o c c u r in t h e s e n t e n c e , i.e., e x t r a - s e n t e n t i a l s w itc h e s ( th o s e w h ic h a p p e a r in t h e f o r m o f q u e s t io n tag s o r e l e m e n t s w h i c h a re n o t an in te g r a l p a r t o f a s e n te n c e ) , in t e r s e n t e n t ia l s w i tc h e s ( w h ic h o c c u r b e t w e e n s e n te n c e s ), a n d f in a lly i n t r a s e n t e n t ia l s w i tc h e s (i.e., t h o s e w h i c h ta k e place w i t h i n a s e n t e n c e b e t w e e n its p a r t i c u l a r c o m p o n e n t s ) , t h e la s t- n a m e d t y p i ­ c ally b e in g a f e a t u r e o f t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d c o d e - m ix i n g . A d d it io n a l ly , in r e c e n t ye a rs s o m e lin g u is ts (cf. Jake e t al. 20 02 , 2 0 0 5 , M a c S w a n 2 0 0 5 ) have also a p p lie d a C h o m s k y a n g e n e r a t iv e a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e c o d e ­ s w i t c h in g s t r u c t u r e , s p e c ific a lly t h e M i n i m a l i s t P r o g r a m , w h i c h refers t o C h o m s k y 's E -la nguage (i.e., t h e t o t a l i t y o f u t t e r a n c e s w h ic h can be m a d e in a g iv e n c o m m u n i t y ) a n d l - g r a m m a r (i.e., t h e g r a m m a r o f a p a r t i c u la r s p e a k e r) (cf. G a r d n e r - C h lo r o s 2 0 0 9 : 93). In t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s , t h e an alysis o f a c o d e - s w i t c h e d u t t e r a n c e w i ll n o t be d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e analysis o f t h e m o n o l i n g u a l t e x t at t h e d e e p s t r u c t u r e , h o w e v e r , at t h e s a m e t i m e CS g r a m ­ m a r is c o n s id e r e d im p u r e , as it d o e s n o t re ly o n a s in gle s et o f c h o ic e s a l­ lo w e d b y t h e U n iv e rs a l G r a m m a r . An a lt e r n a t i v e a s p e c t o f study, as m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , is t h e m o t i v a t i o n o f t h e speakers f o r p e r f o r m i n g s w itc h e s . As in t h e case o f t h e p r e v io u s aspect, it is t h e w o r k o f M y e r s - S c o tt o n (1 9 93 a), based m a i n ly o n E ng lish -S w a hili CS in Kenya, Nigeria a n d o th e r s , w h ic h has w o n t h e g r e a t e s t r e c o g n it io n in t h e fie ld . M y e r s - S c o tt o n (1 9 83 , 19 93 a, 2 0 0 2 a ) i n t r o d u c e d t h e so-ca lle d M a r k e d n e s s M o d e l, w h ic h e v a lu a te s t h e social c o n t e x t o f t h e s w itc h e s , t h e r e b y m a k in g it p o s s ib le t o s ta te in w h ic h s it u a t io n t h e s w itc h e s are e x p e c t e d (i.e., u n m a r k e d ) in t h e m u l t i lin g u a l c o n t e x t , and in w h ic h t h e y are u n e x p e c t e d (i.e., m a r k e d ) a n d t h u s c a r r y s o m e special m e a n in g . M y e r s - S c o tt o n (1 9 93 a) d i s tin g u is h e d f o u r ty p e s o f s w itc h e s , i.e., u n m a r k e d s w itc h e s , a series o f u n m a r k e d s w i t c h ­ es, m a r k e d s w itc h e s , a n d e x p lo r a t o r y s w itc h e s . H e r a s s u m p t io n w a s also t h a t no s w itc h e s w e r e alw ay s m a r k e d o r u n m a r k e d , b u t t h e y d e p e n d e d o n t h e c o n t e x t a n d t h e s p e a k e r's p r e v io u s e x p e r ie n c e ( M y e r s - S c o tt o n 2009 ). A p a r t f r o m M y e r s - S c o tto n , t h e social a s p e c t has also f e a t u r e d q u it e m a r k e d ly in t h e w o r k s o f G a r d n e r - C h lo r o s (19 91 , 1995 , 2 0 09 ), M c C lu r e a n d M c C lu r e (19 88 ), Sebba a n d W o o t t o n (19 9 8 ) and a n u m b e r o f o th e r s . A n e s p e c ia lly in te r e s t in g d e v e l o p m e n t is t o link t h e c o n c e p t o f CS w i t h lin g u is tic styles, e s p e c ia lly w i t h t h e idea o f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f p r a c tic e (E ckert a n d M c C o n n e ll- G in e t 1992, Eckert 2 0 0 0 ) in d ic a t e d in t h e t i t l e o f t h is paper, w h e r e b y b ilin g u a l d is c o u rs e p ra c tic e s m a y be an a ly z e d , as w i ll be d iscusse d b e lo w .

M a i i a I a i l < h s i a S o m e w h a t in o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e analysis o f CS w i t h re g a rd t o t h e social f a c t o r s d e s c r ib i n g a g iv en c o m m u n i t y , s o m e lin g u is ts ha ve i n t e r p r e t e d t h e p h e n o m e n o n w i t h i n t h e t h e o r y o f C o n v e rs a t io n a l A na ly sis . This is in k e e p in g w i t h t h e b e lie f t h a t s w itc h e s s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d b e t t e r w i t h i n c o n v e r s a ­ t i o n , w h i c h is an o r d e r l y p h e n o m e n o n , r a t h e r t h a n b y r e f e r e n c e t o social n o r m s g o v e r n in g a g iv en c o m m u n i t y (cf. G afara nga 2 0 0 5 , G a r d n e r - C h lo r o s 2 0 0 9 ). W h e n a n a ly z in g c o n v e r s a ti o n a l t u r n s it is o f t e n h a rd t o s p e c ify w h a t la n g u a g e c h o ic e s a re t o be m a d e , a n d t h e d e c is io n s are ta k e n o n t h e basis o f t h e c h o ic e s o f o t h e r in t e r lo c u t o r s . T h e s o c ie ta l s t r u c t u r e s do , o f c ou rs e, have a b e a r in g o n t h e e v a lu a t io n o f t h e o v e r a ll s it u a t io n , as m u c h as g r a m m a t ic a l c o n s t r a in ts do, b u t w h a t is m o r e i m p o r t a n t are t h e c o n v e r s a ti o n a l p ra c tic e s o f a g iv e n c o m m u n i t y (cf. A u e r 19 8 4 , 19 98 , Li W e i 1998 ).

O u t o f th is b r o a d p l e t h o r a o f a n a ly tic a l o p t io n s , t h e c o m m u n i t y o f p r a c ­ t ic e a p p r o a c h a p p e a r s t o be m o s t a p p lic a b le t o t h e analysis o f t h e m a t e r ia l c o lle c t e d b y m e in t h e c o n t e x t o f C o m p u t e r - M e d i a t e d C o m m u n i c a t i o n , and m o r e s p e c ific a lly via t h e F a c e b o o k social n e t w o r k . H o w e v e r , a t t h e s a m e t i m e I d o re c o g n iz e a n e e d t o place t h e s t u d y m o r e f i r m l y w i t h i n t h e social c o n t e x t f r o m w h i c h m o s t o f t h e p o s t a u t h o r s c o m e , an d b y w h i c h t h e y have b e e n s h a p e d , t h a t b e in g t h e m u l t i l i n g u a l s o c ie t y o f India.

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Ind ia has b e e n an i n d e p e n d e n t s ta te sin ce 19 47 , t h e y e a r in w h ic h t h e rule o f t h e B ritis h Raj e n d e d a f t e r a l m o s t 9 0 years. T h e f ir s t c o n t a c t b e t w e e n B r ita in a n d India , w h ic h w a s t h e n m o r e o f a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n o f s m a l le r k in g ­ d o m s in t h e h a n d s o f lo cal r u le rs c o v e r in g t h e area o f p r e s e n t- d a y India, Pakista n, B a n g la d e s h , a n d C e y lo n ( n o w Sri Lanka), w a s f o r m a l l y m a d e in 1 6 0 0 w h e n t h e East Ind ia C o m p a n y w a s e s ta b lis h e d in C a lc u tta (an d w h ic h e f f e c t iv e ly r u le d t h e area f o r m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 yea rs) (B au gh a n d C able 20 02 , Crystal 2 0 05 ). T he c o m p e t i t i o n ag a in s t France, t h e p r i m a r y rival o f B rita in on t h e I n d ia n s u b - c o n t i n e n t in t e r m s o f t r a d e , g r a d u a ll y le d t o t h e s u b ju g a t io n o f m o s t p a r ts o f t h e area, a id e d b y m i l i t a r y a c tio n s . Finally, t h e C r o w n t o o k p o s s es s ion o f t h a t p a r t o f t h e w o r l d in 1 8 5 8 a f t e r India 's First W a r o f I n d e ­ p e n d e n c e ( 1 8 5 7 ), a n d ru le d t h e la nd s d i r e c t ly o r t h r o u g h local ru le r s in t h e s o -c a lle d N a tiv e States (Crystal 2 0 0 5 ) . In 1 8 7 6 a u n io n w a s sig ne d, as a re s u lt o f w h i c h t h e e x is te n c e o f t h e In d ia n E m p ir e w a s p r o c la im e d .

Thus, Ind ia a t its v e r y o u t s e t w a s a s ta te c o m p r is in g n u m e r o u s la n g u a g e a n d d i a le c t g r o u p s w h i c h can be b r o a d ly d i v id e d in t o t h e In d o - E u r o p e a n N o r t h e r n Belt, a n d t h e D ra v id ia n S o u th , w i t h a m i n o r r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f t w o o t h e r g r o u p s o n t h e fr in g e s . W i t h t h e p r o g r e s s io n o f B ritis h ru le in Ind ia t h e English la n g u a g e w a s n a t u r a l ly t r a n s p l a n t e d t o t h e r e g io n as w e ll, a n d used in e d u c a t i o n a l m o s t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e B ritis h Raj, i.e., f r o m t h e t i m e

Hm H m i isi €< i t - S » 11 < iin < A s a D h u i n i i v c r l i v< i i i t M \ i i ■ i

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o f t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f a M i n u t e w r i t t e n b y T h o m a s M a c a u la y in 18 35, w h ic h in t r o d u c e d t h e English e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m in Ind ia (Crystal 2 0 0 5 : 4 4 3 ) , a l­ t h o u g h it n e e d s t o be a d d e d t h a t in 1854 , u n d e r Ch arle s W o o d , t h e Presi­ d e n t o f t h e B o a rd o f C o n t r o l ( w h o s p r e a d e d u c a t i o n f a r a n d w i d e a n d e s t a b ­ lis hed a n u m b e r o f u n iv e rs itie s o n t h e m o d e l o f t h e U n iv e r s i ty o f L o n d o n in B o m b a y , C a lc u tta , M a d r a s a n d A lla h a b a d ) t h e n a tiv e i n h a b it a n t s o f India w e r e also g r a n t e d t h e r ig h t t o re c e iv e e d u c a t i o n in t h e i r n a t iv e to n g u e s . T he English la n g u a g e was, o b v io u s ly , t h e la n g u a g e o f t h e e lite ; its use w a s also s p re a d by w h i t e m is s io n a r ie s in t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o c o n v e r t t h e lo cal p o p u l a ­ t i o n t o C h r is t ia n it y as w e ll as p r o p a g a t e E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e (cf. Kachru 1992 ). Thus, t h e s ta tu s o f English w a s v e r y f i r m t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r io d , an d, a l­ t h o u g h t h e B ritis h Raj w a s b r o u g h t t o an e n d in 19 47 , f o r c in g t h e B rit is h t o leave Ind ia , t h e la n g u a g e , in s p ite o f h o s t ile a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e c o lo n iz e rs , r e m a in e d . F o llo w in g t h e I n d ia n C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 9 5 0 it w a s b e lie v e d t h a t English w o u l d assist c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e n e w l y - f o r m e d m u l t i lin g u a l s tates f o r 15 yea rs a f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e , u p o n w h i c h H in d i, t h e m o s t w i d e ­ s p re a d la n g u a g e o f t h e N o r t h , w o u l d g r a d u a ll y t a k e o v e r t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e o ffic ia l n a t io n a l la n g u a g e (B a u g h a n d C able 20 0 2 ). This, h o w e v e r , d id n o t b e c o m e rea lity . A s t r o n g r e s is ta n c e t o t h e use o f H in d i in t h e S o u t h e r n , D r a v id ia n - s p e a k in g s tates (as S o u t h e r n e r s d id n o t see a n y s im i la r p r o p a g a ­ t i o n o f a D ra v id ia n la n g u a g e across t h e N o r t h e r n B elt (cf. Das G u p ta 19 70 )) u l t i m a t e l y le d t o t h e O ffic ia l La ng uag e Bill o f 19 63 , w h ic h s t a t e d t h a t English w a s t o r e m a in as an a s s is ta n t la n g u a g e s id e b y sid e w i t h H in d i ( D w iv e n d i 1981 ), t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e lo cal t o n g u e s o f f ic ia lly used in v a r io u s I n d ia n s tates ( c u r r e n t ly , t h e s e n u m b e r 22 o f fic ia l s ta te la n g u a g e s in c lu d in g English). As in s o m e o t h e r p o s t - c o lo n ia l c o u n t r ie s , n a m e ly Kenya, U g an da, T anzania, S in ga­ p o r e a n d o th e r s , English has r e m a in e d a n e u t r a l m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . This has b e e n p e r c e iv e d as a b e t t e r s o l u t io n in t h e c o n t e x t o f local t r ib a l r iv a lr y f o r r e c o g n it io n , sin ce t h e s e le c t io n o f o n e n a t iv e t o n g u e as an o ffic ia l la n g u a g e as o p p o s e d t o o t h e r s w o u l d n o d o u b t cause d i s p u t e (cf. B augh and Cable 2 0 0 2 , M e s t h r i e 20 00 , G a r d n e r - C h lo r o s a n d Charle s 20 0 7 ).

4 . T h e p o s i t i o n c r I x i i m i n t h e C i i i i C i e c i f

As t h is b r i e f h is to r ic a l o u t l i n e has d e m o n s t r a t e d , English has a lw a y s e n jo y e d high p r e s tig e in India. A t t h is p o i n t it is c o u n t e d a m o n g t h e g r o u p o f t h e s o -c a lle d N e w Englishes, i.e., la n g u a g e s in d ig e n iz e d an d n a tiv iz e d t h r o u g h e x p o s u r e t o lo cal to n g u e s , w h i c h are an i m p o r t a n t m e d i u m o f in t e r - g r o u p c o m m u n i c a t i o n (cf. M e s t h r i e 2 0 0 0 ) ; t h e y are also used in t h e o f f ic ia l c o n t e x t , i.e., t h e p a r lia m e n t , c o u r ts , e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e m e d ia (cf. also Jen kin s 2 0 09 ). N e w Englishes are, h o w e v e r , m o s t ly s e c o n d la ng u a g e s , n e x t t o lo cal la n g u a g ­ es an d d ia le c ts , w h ic h a re t a u g h t in s c h o o l r ig h t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a child 's

1 8 H a i i \ Ęj ą i k w \ i v

e d u c a t i o n , a l t h o u g h in f a c t s o m e p e r c e n ta g e o f t h e lo cal p o p u la t io n , m a i n ly t h e elit es , m a y use English at h o m e as a la n g u a g e o f p r i m a r y c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d s o c ia liz a tio n (cf. Jen kin s 2 0 0 9 ). W h a t n o d o u b t s t r e n g t h e n s t h e p o s it io n o f English r o u n d t h e w o r l d , a n d n a t u r a l ly also in t h e p o s t - c o lo n ia l s tates, is t h e f a c t t h a t English has b e c o m e an in t e r n a t i o n a lly - r e c o g n iz e d lin g u a f r a n ­ ca, used n o t o n ly as t h e f ir s t la n g u a g e in t h e s o -c a lle d In n e r Circle, i.e., t h e E n g lis h -s p e a k in g c o u n t r ie s , b u t also t h e s e c o n d la n g u a g e used in t h e O u t e r Circle (i.e., t h e p o s t - c o lo n ia l c o u n t r ie s ) , as w e ll as an in c r e a s in g ly p o p u la r a n d i m p o r t a n t f o r e i g n la n g u a g e used f o r in t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n in t h e E x p a n d in g Circle (cf. K ach ru 19 88 , 1992 ). In t h e c o n t e x t o f India , a c o u n t r y r e n o w n e d in t h e w o r l d f o r its c in e m a t o g r a p h y , English has also b e e n associ­ a te d w i t h s h o w - b u s in e s s . It is n o t u n c o m m o n t o h e a r H in d i-E n g iis h c o d e ­ m ix i n g o n n a t io n a l In d ia n TV a n d ra d io c h a n n e ls , b u t also m o r e a n d m o r e o f t e n in In d ia n , a n d e s p e c ia lly H in d i m o v ie s . T h e rea s o n f o r th is , as G a r d n e r - C h lo ro s (2 0 0 9 : 78) c la im s , is t h e " a p p e a l t o t h e w i d e s t p o s s ib le a u d ie n c e , in ­ c lu d in g y o u n g s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n A s ia ns w h o s e m a in la n g u a g e is English, as w e ll as t h e i r p a r e n t s ' a n d g r a n d p a r e n t s ' g e n e r a t io n , w h o s e m a in la n g u a g e m a y be o n e o f a v a r i e t y o f I n d ia n la n g u a g e s (e.g., P u n ja b i, G u je r a ti) , b u t w h o ha ve H in d i as a la n g u a g e o f l i t e r a c y " (cf. G a r d e n - C h lo r o s a n d Charle s 20 0 7 ). T hus, as G a r d n e r - C h lo r o s (2 0 0 9 : 79) f u r t h e r s tates, it is "a c o m p r o m i s e t o s u it an a u d i e n c e w i t h v a r io u s levels o f c o m p e t e n c e in English a n d H in d i - m a n y t h e m s e lv e s c o d e - s w i t c h e r s - a n d s im u lt a n e o u s ly f u n c t i o n a l w i t h i n t h e c o n v e r s a tio n itself." This is, t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h t h e e x a m p le s o f c o d e - s w i t c h in g c o lle c t e d o n F a c e b o o k w i l l be an aly z ed.

5. C o m p u t e r - M e d i a t e d C o m m u n i c a t i o n ( C M C ) A S A S O U R C E C T S C C I O I I N C U I S T I C D A T A I ha ve c h o s e n t h e m e d i u m o f F ac eb oo k , t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s ocial n e t w o r k , in o r d e r t o e x a m in e t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f c o d e - s w i t c h in g o f H in d i s pe ak e rs f o r a n u m b e r o f rea son s. C o d e - s w it c h in g is p r i m a r i l y s t u d ie d in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s p o k e n m e d i u m , as it is a n a t u r a l an d e v e n s u b c o n s c io u s c h o i c e - i n d e e d , as s o m e re s e a rc h e rs ha ve m a n a g e d t o e s ta b lis h (cf. W a r d h a u g h 1991 ), b i lin ­ g u al s pe ak e rs in m u l t i l i n g u a l c o n t e x t s e v e n c la im t h e y d o n o t c o d e - s w itc h , w h e r e a s in fa c t, as r e c o r d in g s d e m o n s t r a t e , t h e y do, w h i c h o n ly p ro v e s t h a t t h e le x ic o n s o f t h e c o d e s in v o lv e d are t o a la rge e x t e n t c o m b in e d a t t h e c o g ­ n itiv e level. O n e s t u d y o f CS in t h e s p o k e n m e d i u m w a s an in v e s t ig a t io n o f lin g u is t ic b e h a v io r in H in d i-E n g lis h b ilin g u a l m e d ia in B rita in c a r r ie d o u t by G a r d n e r - C h lo r o s a n d C h arle s ( 2 0 0 7 ) ; a n o t h e r , in t h is case c o n c e r n in g Punja - bi-E ng lish s w i t c h in g ( P u n ja b i is a d i a le c t r e la t e d t o H in d i), w a s an a ly z e d on t h e basis o f n a t u r a l c o n v e r s a ti o n s (cf. G a r d n e r - C h lo r o s , C h arle s a n d C h e s h ire 20 0 0 ). A p a r t f r o m e x a m in i n g social p a t te r n s m a n if e s t in g t h e m s e lv e s t h r o u g h CS, lin g u is ts ha ve also a n a ly z e d s o m e s p e c ific g r a m m a t ic a l a n d s e m a n t ic

M i n i r l m i m I < i i - S h i k i in< Asa O j h h i w k * c r l i \ « 11« i H \ n 11 I | 9 as p ec ts o f H in d i-E n g lis h CS (cf. R o m a in e 19 8 6 , B o r o w ia k 20 1 0 ). F ac eb oo k , on t h e o t h e r ha n d , is a w r i t t e n m e d i u m , a n d t h e analysis o f CS in w r i t i n g , m u c h less s t u d ie d , p r o v id e s an a d d i t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n t o t h e d is c u s s io n o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n . It has t o be s tre s s e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e C M C la n g u a g e w h ic h c h a r a c te r iz e s F a c e b o o k as w e ll as o t h e r C M C o p t io n s , is n o t e x a c tly t h e s a m e v a r i e t y as t h a t t o be f o u n d in, e.g., n e w s p a p e r s o r a c a d e m ic te x ts . It d e m o n s t r a t e s a h ig h level o f i n f o r m a l i t y a n d a llo w s f o r m u c h s p o n t a n e i t y in re a c tio n s , as a r e s u lt o f w h i c h it d e p a r t s f r o m t h e classical f e a tu r e s o f t h e w r i t t e n la n g u a g e , such as e.g., t im e - l a g , c a r e fu l w o r d i n g , g r e a t e r f o r m a l it y , m o r e c o m p le x g r a m m a r , d e c o n t e x t u a l iz a t io n , etc. (cf. Cry stal 20 0 1 , B aron 2 0 0 8 , J en k in s 2 0 0 9 ). T hus, it s hares m a n y f e a t u r e s w i t h t h e s p o k e n m e d i u m ( f o r e x a m p le , m o r e c o l lo q u i a l la n g u a g e , ad h o c f o r m a t i o n s , o f t e n n o t i m e - lag, c o n t r a c t io n s , etc.), w h i c h s u p p o r t s t h e c la im o f s o m e lin g u is ts t h a t w e s h o u ld d e p a r t f r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n s p e e c h a n d w r i t i n g (cf. T a n n e n 1982 , M u r r a y 19 88 , J en k in s 20 0 9 , D ą b r o w s k a 2 0 0 1 , 20 1 0 ), e s p e ­ c ia lly since t h e s ta tu s o f C M C la n g u a g e has n o t y e t b e e n f u l l y e s t a b lis h e d - it is t r e a t e d as a n e w r e g is t e r (cf. Davis a n d B r e w e r 19 9 7 ), a n e w g e n r e (Duszak a n d O kuls ka 2 0 0 4 ) o r e v e n a n e w m e d i u m / c h a n n e l o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n (Crys­ ta l 2001 , S t o c k w e ll 2 0 0 2 ). T hus, t h e e x a m in a t io n o f C M C w i ll g r a d u a ll y h e lp in t h e c o lle c t io n o f m o r e c o m p l e t e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n in g t h e n e w la n g u a g e v a rie ty . F a c e b o o k as s uch is also a v e r y p r e c io u s s o u r c e o f s t u d y m a t e r i a l as a m e d i u m w h i c h can be f r e e l y accessed b y a n y o n e a n d , a p a r t f r o m p r iv a t e m essages a n d s e m i - p r iv a t e po s ts le ft o n t h e w a lls o f o n e 's c o n ta c ts , t h e r e a re also n u m e r o u s fa n pages o f a v a r i e t y o f c e le b ritie s , p h e n o m e n a , a n d o b je c ts , w h ic h e n c o u r a g e a n d a c c e p t c o m m e n t s f r o m a n y o n e . F a c e b o o k is t h e r e f o r e an in v a lu a b le m in e o f e a s ily -a c c e s s ib le c o l lo q u i a l a n d s p o n t a n e ­ ou s la n g u a g e s a m p le s w h ic h m a y s e rv e as an in s ig h t in t o t h e lin g u is t ic an d social p r a c tic e s o f v a r io u s g ro u p s . T he fa c t, h o w e v e r , t h a t it is u p t o a p o in t a w r i t t e n m e d i u m s h o u ld be p e r c e iv e d as an asset, t o o . W h e n p u t t i n g w o r d s o n paper, a n d v e r y m u c h t h e s a m e o n t h e c o m p u t e r s c re e n , o n e d o e s m a k e s o m e s e m i- c o n s c io u s o r c o n s c io u s d e c is io n s as t o w h a t w i l l be rea d b y o t h ­ ers, a n d in t h e case o f t h e F a c e b o o k w o r l d n o t o n ly b y c lo s e f r ie n d s , b u t also p o s s ib ly m o r e d i s t a n t a c q u a in t a n c e s a n d , in t h e case o f fa n pages, s trang ers . T hus, t h e f a c t t h a t o n e d e c id e s t o c h o o s e o n e lin g u is t ic f o r m a n d n o t t h e o t h e r in d ir e c t l y in d ic a te s h o w o n e w a n t s t o be p e r c e iv e d b y o t h e r s t h r o u g h t h e p r is m o f o n e 's la n g u a g e cho ic e s . It also s h o w s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e o v e r a ll t e n d e n c y p r e v a ilin g in a g iv e n g r o u p i f o n e d e c id e s t o f o l l o w t h e p r a c tic e c o m m o n l y u tiliz e d b y its m e m b e r s . 6. C O M M U N I T V C f f Ł A C T I C r

T his b rin g s us back t o t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f p r a c t i c e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e (cf. also v i r t u a l c o m m u n i t y o r c o m m u n i t y o f d is c o u rs e - S e id lh o f e r

. Ha u a I A i u h m v 2 0 0 6 ). It is a r e l a t iv e l y n e w a n d n o t y e t w i d e s p r e a d c o n c e p t s u g g e s te d by Eckert a n d M c C o n n e ll- G in e t ( 1 9 9 2 : 4 6 4 ) f o r "a g g r e g a te ( s ) o f p e o p le w h o c o m e t o g e t h e r a r o u n d m u t u a l e n g a g e m e n t in an e n d e a v o r ." T h e s e c o n c e p ts w e r e p o s t u la t e d as a r e a c t i o n t o s o m e re s e a rc h d e v e l o p m e n t s in lingu is tic s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f g l o b a li z a t io n a n d t h e n o t i o n o f English as a lingu a fr a n c a s lo w ly b e in g r e c o g n iz e d b y s o c io lin g u is ts . As S e id lh o f e r (2 0 0 6 ) suggests, d u e t o t h e o m n i p r e s e n t use o f English all o v e r t h e w o r ld , a n d p a r t i c u la r ly its r e c o g n it io n as an o ff ic ia l la n g u a g e in t h e p o s t -c o lo n ia l states, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l f o r t h e analysis o f English ba sed o n t h e p r i m a r y n o t io n s o f s p e e c h c o m m u n i t y is n o lo n g e r a s s o c ia te d w i t h B r ita in o r t h e USA, b u t is p l u r ic e n t r ic (cf. K ach ru 1992 , J en k in s 20 0 9 ), a n d t h u s d e p e n d e n t o n a g iv e n lo cal c o n t e x t . It is t h e r e f o r e h a rd t o s t u d y t h e use o f English w i t h i n t h e s p e e c h c o m m u n i t y , as t h e English s p e e c h c o m m u n i t y in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sense o f t h e w o r d n o l o n g e r exists, sin ce users o f English d o n o t live in close p r o x i m i t y an y m o r e . A n a n s w e r t o t h is is t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d c o m m u n i t y o f p ra c tic e , w h i c h g e n e r a t e s c e r t a in s t a n d a r d s o f la n g u a g e use a n d n o r m s o f its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n o t f o r p e o p le b o u n d t o g e t h e r g e o g r a p h i­ c ally a n d c u ltu r a lly , b u t f o r t h o s e lin k e d b y a c e r t a in a c t i v i t y in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h w h i c h English is used. W e n g e r (19 9 8 , a f t e r J en k in s 2 0 0 9 : 2 1 1) m e n t i o n s t h a t t h e p r i m a r y c r it e r ia f o r such c o m m u n i t i e s are "1 . m u t u a l e n g a g e m e n t in s h a r e d p ra c tic e s , 2. t a k in g p a r t in s o m e j o i n t l y n e g o t i a t e d e n t e r p r i s e , and 3. m a k i n g use o f m e m b e r s ' s h a r e d r e p e r t o i r e . " Thus, t h o s e users m ig h t be q u it e r e m o v e d f r o m o n e a n o t h e r in t e r m s o f d is ta n c e , n a t i o n a l i t y o r c u ltu r e , y e t it is t h e i n v o l v e m e n t in a c e r t a i n a c t iv i t y t h a t b rin g s t h e m t o g e t h e r and as such c re a te s n o r m s o f b e h a v io r in a g iv e n s i t u a t io n a l c o n t e x t . In a d d i­ t io n , sin ce t h e n o t i o n o f a p p r o p r ia t e n e s s u s u a lly re la te s t o t h e e v a lu a t io n o f s p e e c h b e h a v io r o f t h e p r i m a r y social c o m m u n i t y , " i t is likely t o be a p ­ p r o p r ia t e in m any, i f n o t m o s t c o n t e x t s in w h i c h English is c u r r e n t l y used, n o t t o f u l l y c o n f o r m t o n a tiv e s p e a k e r c o n v e n t i o n s " ( S e id lh o f e r 20 0 6 , a f t e r Jen kin s 2 0 0 9 : 21 2). T his m e a n s t h a t in t h is r e s p e c t t h e use o f la n g u a g e m a y be b e t t e r v ie w e d as an e x a m p le o f register, i.e., an o c c u p a t i o n a l / s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i e t y (cf. S e id lh o f e r 2 0 0 6 ). This is also m y a p p r o a c h t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e lin g u is tic b e h a v io r o f t h e F a c e b o o k users w h o ta k e p a r t in in t e r a c t io n o n fa n pages. In v i e w o f t h is , m y c la im is t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f c o d e ­ s w itc h in g , t o be o b s e r v e d in t h e c o lle c t e d posts, w a s m o t i v a t e d b y t h e user's p a r t i c ip a t io n in a c o m m u n i t y o f p ra c tic e . T he c o m m u n i t y in a b r o a d sense w o u l d be t h e c o m m u n i t y o f F a c e b o o k users, i.e., p e r s o n s w h o s u b s c r ib e t o t h e s e m i - f o r m a l o r e v e n casual s ty le o f i n t e r a c t io n t y p ic a l o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h f r ie n d s a n d a c q u a in t a n c e s , w h i c h is t y p i f i e d by, e.g., t h e p r e d o m i n a n t use o f t h e f ir s t n a m e in a d d r e s s in g o t h e r s as w e ll as t h e use o f in f o r m a l la n g u a g e s tr a te g ie s such as c o llo q u ia lis m s , e m o t i c o n s , a b b r e v ia t io n s , h u ­ m or, a n d w h o sh a re n e w s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h a g r o u p o f f r ie n d s (a g r o u p w h i c h m a y e x p a n d g r a d u a ll y w i t h t h e a d m is s io n o f o t h e r p e o p le o n e d o e s

I i v i H v i m O i i ' S m i i i i n i , \ s \ ( < h * i i m i > i i I i \ < i u i ' U l i 11 I 2 1

n o t k n o w v e r y w e ll) . Also, t o a la rge e x t e n t , as F a c e b o o k c o n n e c ts p e o p le glo b a lly , it a p p e a r s t h a t m a n y o f its users, ir r e s p e c t iv e o f t h e i r n a t io n a lity , d e c id e t o i n t e r a c t w i t h o t h e r s in English, p u t u p t h e i r o w n m es s a ge s o n Face- b o o k w a lls in English, a n d c o m m e n t o n t h e w a lls o f o t h e r s in English as w e ll (s o m e m a y d o it in t h e i r o w n m o t h e r t o n g u e a lo n g s id e English). A m o n g m y o w n F a c e b o o k c o n t a c t s a l m o s t o n e t h i r d are n a t iv e s p e a k e rs o f English, and o u t o f t h e r e m a in i n g t w o t h ir d s o f a v e r y i n t e r n a t i o n a l g r o u p o n ly ca. 15 % use t h e i r n a t iv e la n g u a g e t o w r i t e w a ll posts, t h e o t h e r s u s in g o n ly English o r English a n d t h e i r n a t iv e t o n g u e s id e b y sid e. T hus, English is t o a la rge e x t e n t an i m p o r t a n t , in d e e d , a l m o s t o b lig a t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t f o r o n e w h o w a n t s t o be a m e m b e r o f t h is c o m m u n i t y o f p ra c tic e .

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In m y analysis I ha ve d e c id e d t o e x a m in e t h e la n g u a g e b e h a v io r o f I n d ia n F a c e b o o k users, a n d s p e c ific a lly t h e la n g u a g e o f t h e po s ts w r i t t e n by fa n s on o n e o f t h e g lo b a lly -a c c e s s ib le fan pages. I s e le c te d t h e fan page o f o n e o f t h e m o s t r e n o w n e d H in d i m o v i e stars, Shah Rukh Khan, an d s p e c if ic a lly his fan s ' c o m m e n t s a f t e r his h a v in g p o s t e d a t r a i l e r c o n c e r n in g t h e re le a s e o f o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t H in d i m o v i e classics, M u g h a t - e - A z a m , in color. T h e c h o ic e o f t h e f a n page w a s d i c t a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t it is m a n a g e d in English, m u c h as m o s t o t h e r f a n pages are, a n d sin ce Shah Rukh Khan is also e x t r e m e l y p o p u la r o u t s id e In d ia n b o r d e r s , I a s s u m e d it w o u l d a t t r a c t an i n t e r n a t i o n a l f a n f o l ­ lo w in g , as a r e s u lt o f w h i c h t h e c o m m e n t s w o u l d be w r i t t e n p r e d o m i n a n t l y in English. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , Shah Rukh Khan is p r i m a r i l y a H in d i m o v i e star, an icon in Ind ia , e s p e c ia lly in its n o r t h e r n p a r t, a n d in Pakista n, a M u s ­ lim a c t o r w h o has g a in e d hu ge r e c o g n it io n a m o n g b o t h M u s l i m a n d H in d u in h a b it a n t s o f t h a t r e g io n , t h e r e f o r e , as I had e n v is a g e d , in o r d e r t o e m p h a ­ size his h e r it a g e , s o m e fan s m i g h t c h o o s e t o w r i t e t h e i r c o m m e n t s in H indi. It m u s t be h a rd a t t i m e s t o d e c id e w h ic h la n g u a g e t o use - w h e t h e r English, be c au s e it is an i n t e r n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e , a n d a v e r y p r e s tig io u s t o n g u e in In ­ dia (cf. G a r d n e r - C h lo r o s a n d Ch arle s 2 0 0 7 ) as w e ll as t h e la n g u a g e o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f F a c e b o o k posts, o r H in d i as a m a n if e s t a t io n o f o n e 's e t h n ic a n d c u l tu r a l b a c k g r o u n d as w e ll as p r id e s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e H in d i m o v i e star's g lo b a l f a m e . A n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r t h e use o f H in d i m a y be a p o o r e r c o m m a n d o f English, w h ic h , a l t h o u g h used as a p r i m a r y m e a n s o f e d u c a t i o n in India, o f t e n leaves a lo t t o be d e s ire d , b o t h in s p e e c h a n d w r i t i n g (cf. D ą b r o w s k a 2 0 1 1 b ) . I b e lie v e t h is d i l e m m a is o f t e n re s o lv e d by t h e u s e r's d e c is io n t o c o d e - s w i t c h in t h e i r p o s ts in o r d e r t o s h o w r e s p e c t t o b o t h to n g u e s , w h i c h is a f e a t u r e c h a r a c t e r iz in g t h e c o m m u n i t y o f I n d ia n H in d i f i l m fans.

M y s p e c ific analysis w i ll c o m p r is e 55 posts w r i t t e n o n t h e f a n page o n M a r c h 11, 2 0 1 1 , o u t o f 4 0 1 po s ts p u t up o n t h e w a ll o n t h a t day. O u t o f th e s e

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2 5 9 w e r e w r i t t e n o n ly in English, 17 o n ly in H in d i, a n d 55 s h o w e d c o d e ­ s w i t c h in g ( t h e r e m a in i n g n u m b e r c o v e r e d m is c e lla n e o u s posts, i.e., t h o s e in o t h e r la ng u a g e s , like French, G e r m a n , In d o n e s ia n , etc., o r t h e c o n t e n t c o u ld have b e e n cla s s ifie d as b e lo n g i n g t o a n y la n g u a g e , e.g., s o m e e x c la m a t io n s like ' w o w l ' o r e m o t i c o n s ) . W e can t h e r e f o r e a l r e a d y see t h a t t h e p r e d o m i ­ n a n t la n g u a g e o f t h e po s ts w a s English, d e s p i te t h e m a j o r i t y o f r e s p o n d e n t s b e in g In d ia n , li k e ly f r o m n o r t h e r n India (as in t h e s o u t h o f India H in d i f ilm a c to rs d o n o t e n jo y such g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y as lo cal o n e s d u e t o t h e a lr e a d y m e n t i o n e d n o r t h - s o u t h la n g u a g e a n im o s i t i e s a n d o v e r a ll lin g u is tic a n d c u l­ t u r a l d i ff e re n c e s ) , a n d o n ly a f e w w e r e c o m p o s e d in H in d i. T h e f a c t t h a t 13% o f t h e users c ho s e t o c o d e - s w i t c h is a s ig n if ic a n t p r o p o r t i o n w h ic h c a n n o t be o v e r lo o k e d . T h e d is c u s s io n o f t h e e x a m p le s w i ll f ir s t fo c u s o n t h e f o r m a l c la s s ific a tio n o f t h e po s ts in t e r m s o f t h e c o d e - s w i t c h in g s t r u c t u r e , ba sed o n Poplack's (1 9 8 0 , 19 8 1 ) c la s s ific a tio n in t o e x tra -, in t e r - a n d in t r a s e n t e n t ia l it e m s , and w i ll be f o l l o w e d b y a b r i e f g r a m m a t ic a l analysis o f t h e posts. T h e n t h e f u n c ­ t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s e x p re s s e d b y t h e t w o r e s p e c tiv e la ng u a g e s w i ll be d is ­ cussed in ea ch o f t h e d i s tin g u is h e d c a te g o rie s . As c o n c e r n s t h e f o r m o f t h e p r e s e n te d e x a m p le s , t h e y w i ll be w r i t t e n in t h e Latin a lp h a b e t , m i r r o r i n g ex­ a c tly t h e s p e llin g o f t h e o r ig in a l posts. This m e a n s t h a t t h e y w i ll r e t a in b o t h t h e in d iv i d u a l a p p r o a c h t o H in d i-E n g lis h t r a n s c r i p t i o n ( w h ic h m a y also r e ­ f l e c t d ia le c t a l d iff e re n c e s , e.g., H in d i vs. U r d u , P u n ja b i o r Bengali), m is ta k e s in s p e llin g as w e ll as all s h o r t e n i n g s tr a te g ie s w h ic h are c o m m o n l y f o u n d in C M C English an d, u p t o a p o in t, in H in d i w h e n t r a n s c r i b e d in t h e Latin s c r ip t as w e ll. H o w e v e r , w h e n c o m m e n t i n g on t h e H in d i e l e m e n t s o f t h e an alyzed po s ts a n d p r o v id i n g a f u ll f o r m o f s e le c t e d t e x t f r a g m e n t s , I w ill use a m o r e o f f ic ia lly r e c o g n iz e d v e r s io n o f t h e H in d i t r a n s c r i p t i o n . It w i ll n o t be t h e ac a­ d e m ic v a r i a n t o f t h e s c r ip t, as t h is w o u l d o f t e n d e p a r t f r o m t h e v e r s io n used in t h e po s ts q u it e s ig n ific a n tly , t h e r e b y c a u s in g t o o m u c h c o n f u s io n , b u t t h e p o p u l a r t r a n s c r i p t i o n c o m m o n l y f o u n d in t h e m e d ia , w h ic h is c lo s e r t o t h e p h o n e t i c s p e llin g in w h ic h t h e po s ts w e r e w r i t t e n . B elow , a c o u p le o f e x a m p le s are o f f e r e d w h ic h w i ll h e lp in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d e g r e e o f d i f f i c u l t y c o n c e r n in g t h e d e c ip h e r i n g o f t h e s p e llin g used by t h e a u t h o r s . It s t e m s n o t o n ly f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e is n o s in gle e s t a b ­ lished t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n s y s te m o f H in d i c h a r a c te r s in to English, b u t also f r o m users' i g n o r i n g t h e p o p u l a r t r a n s c r i p t i o n v a r i a n t used in p r i n t e d te x ts , like b o o k s a n d n e w s p a p e r s , a re s u lt o f C M C la n g u a g e f a s h io n as w e ll as t h e us­ ers' s u b c o n s c io u s d r iv e t o m a k e t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n m o r e p h o n e t i c t h a n t h e o f ­ fic ia l, b u t a d m i t t e d l y u n h e l p f u l an d m is l e a d in g s y s tem . T h e d i f f i c u l t y is also a t t i m e s a u g m e n t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t s o m e H in d i s o u n d s , p a r t i c u la r ly t h e r e t ­ r o f le x c o n s o n a n t s , d o n o t h a v e an e q u i v a le n t in English, a n d h e n c e a d u a l it y o f s p e llin g r e s u lt in g f r o m t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e t w o n e a r e s t s o u n d s , e.g., ' t h o d a ' / ' t h o r a ' ('a li tt le ') . T hus, e.g., a c c o r d in g t o t h e H in d iE n g lis h t r a n s l it

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e r a t i o n s y s te m t h e p r o n o u n 'I' ( ' m a in ') , is f o u n d in s o m e posts, e.g., ' m a in t u m a r a sabse ba da fa n hu,' h o w e v e r , a f a ir n u m b e r o f a u t h o r s w r i t e it as 'm a i,' ' m e in , ' o r e v e n 'm e ,' e.g., ' m e i n t u h a d a b a h u t v da fa n ha i' o r ' m e n a c h - eez apka e k fa n hu.' S o m e o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s p e llin g s in c lu d e , e.g., ' m u j h e ' vs. ' m u z e ' / ' m u j a , ' 'h a z a r ' vs. 'hajar,' 'z y a d a ' vs. 'jy ad a,' etc. T h e c o n f u s io n in t h e s e e x a m p le s c o m e s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t in H in d i t h e s o u n d s / d 3 / a n d / z / , t h e la t t e r a b o r r o w i n g f r o m Persian, are w r i t t e n b y m e a n s o f t h e s a m e c h a ra c te r, b u t / z / has an a d d i t i o n a l d ia c r it ic , a d o t a t t h e b o t t o m le ft o f t h e c h a ra c te r. H o w e v e r, m a n y p r i n t e d t e x t s - e v e n s c h o o l b o o k s - o m i t t h e d o t , h e n c e t h e a m b i g u i t y o f h o w t o d e p i c t it in t h e Latin a l p h a b e t , a n d t h e r e s u lt ­ in g s u b s t i t u t i o n o f / z / f o r / d 3 / in s p e llin g . S o m e o t h e r d is c r e p a n c ie s in s p e ll­ in g are, e.g., ' h u n ' vs. 'h u ,' 'h a i n ' vs. ' h a i ' / ' h e ' / ' h , ' ' k y o n ' vs. 'k y u ,' 'u s k e ' vs. 'u shke ,' etc. A n a d d i t i o n a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s t e m s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e is no f ix e d s t a n d a r d in H in d i as t o w h e t h e r s o m e g r a m m a t ic a l e l e m e n t s s h o u ld be s p e lle d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e n e ig h b o u r i n g w o r d o r s e p a ra te ly , e s p e c ia lly w h e n it c o m e s t o p o s t p o s i ti o n s , e.g., 'a a p ko' vs. 'a a p k o ,' a n d , t h a t t h e a u t h o r s v e r y o f t e n o m i t v o w e l s o u n d s a l to g e th e r , t h e r e b y r e f le c t i n g t h e a c tu a l s p e llin g in H in d i, w h e r e each c o n s o n a n t a l l e t t e r is in f a c t a s y lla b le c o n t a in in g a s h o r t / a / as t h e s e c o n d e l e m e n t . A d d it io n a l ly , s o m e users m a r k t h e lo n g v o w e ls d u t i f u l l y by t h e i r d o u b l e sp e llin g , w h i l e o t h e r s d o n o t, e.g., 'a a p ' vs. 'ap.' A n d t h u s ' b a t ja b b h i m a in a a p k e b a re m ai...' b e c o m e s ' b t ja b b m e a a pk e b a re m e,' a n d 'koi b h i na hi h o sakta...' b e c o m e s 'koi v nai h o skta,' 'k e b a re m e ' b e c o m e s 'k b r e m e . ' Such cases are q u it e n u m e r o u s . W h a t n o d o u b t c o n t r i b ­ u te s t o t h is t e n d e n c y is m im i c k i n g t h e s tr a te g ie s o f a b b r e v ia t in g w o r d s in C M C English, i.e., t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d l e t t e r - w o r d s u b s t i t u t i o n o r v o w e l d e le t i o n s tra te g ie s . A ll in all, t h e re s u lt b e c o m e s q u it e c h a o t ic , w i t h each u s e r f o l l o w i n g his o r h e r p r iv a t e s y s te m o f t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n , w h i c h m a y give t h e im p r e s s io n o f g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e q u a l it y o f la n g u a g e used, w h e r e in f a c t t h e r e are no ne .

It also s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t s o m e o f t h e p o s ts m a y in f a c t c o n t a in e l e ­ m e n t s of, o r e v e n be w r i t t e n in U r d u , w h i c h a t t h is p o in t, d u e t o its b e in g t h e o ffic ia l la n g u a g e o f Pakista n a n d o f s o m e I n d ia n s tates, is t r e a t e d as a d i f ­ f e r e n t t o n g u e . H o w e v e r , b o t h H in d i a n d U r d u a re in f a c t d ia le c ts o f H i n d u ­ s tani, an I n d o - E u r o p e a n la n g u a g e used in Ind ia p a r t i c u la r ly b e f o r e r e g a in in g i n d e p e n d e n c e ( s o m e t i m e s also r e f e r r e d t o as H i n d i - U r d u ) . H in d i an d U rd u are t h u s d ia le c ts o f H in d u s t a n i. In t o d a y 's Ind ia t h e y ha ve g a in e d r e c o g n i­ t i o n as t w o s e p a r a te la ng uag es , w h i c h is m o s t ly v is ib le a t t h e level o f t h e s c r ip t ( H in d i is w r i t t e n in t h e D e v a n a g a ri s c r ip t, a n d U r d u in t h e P e rs o -A ra b ic s c r ip t) as w e ll as li te ra ry , c u ltu r a l, a n d r e lig io u s a s s o c ia tio n s a n d t h e r e s p e c ­ t iv e v o c a b u la r y cho ic e s . In t h e i r s t a n d a r d iz e d f o r m s H in d i a n d U r d u m a y t h e r e f o r e be i d e n t i f i e d as d i s t i n c t to n g u e s , h o w e v e r , w h e n in t h e s o -c a lle d

b o l- c h a l k i b h a s h a , i.e., t h e c o l lo q u i a l la n g u a g e , a n d e s p e c ia lly w h e n w r i t ­