St l i S / t / l N i l
Różnice p o m ię d z y a s p e k ta m i s y s te m u ję z y k o w e g o , k tó re g o w ła s n o ś c i w y n ik a ją z u n iw e rs a ln y c h zasad g ra m a t y k i ję zyka n a tu r a ln e g o i a s p e k t a m i k s z ta łto w a n y m i przez re g u ły w ła ś c iw e dla k o n k re t n e g o ję zyka, na g ru n c ie g e n e r a t y w n e j t e o r ii ję zyka z o sta ły u ję te w ra m a c h ro zró ż n ie n ia na tzw . 'g ra m a ty k ę r d z e n io w ą ' (Core G r a m m a r) i 'p e r y f e ria ję z y k o w e ' (Periphery). N a w ią z u ją c d o te g o p o d z ia łu , praca o m a w ia za g a d n ie n ie róż n ic w e w n ą t r z ję z y k o w y c h na p rz y k ła d z ie w ła ś c iw o ści d y s try b u c y jn y c h i in t e r p r e t a c y jn y c h d o p e łn ie ń d o m y ś ln y c h (tzn. d o p e łn ie ń o b e c n y c h w s t r u k t u r z e lo g ic z n e j zd ania ale p o z b a w io n y c h w a r s t w y a r t y k u la c y jn e j) w o d m ia n ie ję zyka a n g ie ls k ie g o n e u tr a ln e j p o d w z g lę d e m s ty lis ty c z n y m i w s o c jo le k c ie p rz e p is ó w k u lin a rn y c h . W zw ią zku z t y m , że zdania z a w ie ra ją c e o k re ś lo n e d o p e łn ie n ia d o m y ś ln e są zazwyczaj n ie g ra m a ty c z n e w p ie rw sz e j, ale n ie w d ru g ie j z ty c h o d m ia n języka, w a r t o zadać p y ta n ie , skąd w y p ły w a j ą różn ice o b s e r w o w a n e w ra m a c h je d n e g o języka oraz ja k ie c z y n n ik i d e c y d u ją o o d m ie n n o ś c i s o c jo le k t ó w p o d w z g lę d e m m o ż liw o ś c i w y s tą p ie n ia d o p e łn ie ń d o m y ś ln y c h w k o n s tru k c ja c h z d a n io w y c h . A u t o r k a sta w ia tezę, że n ie z g o d n o ś ć w d y s tr y b u c ji d o p e łn i e ń d o m y ś ln y c h w o g ó ln e j o d m ia n ie ję zyka a n g ie ls k ie g o oraz o m a w ia n y c h w a r t y k u le s o c jo - le kta ch nie p o w in n a być p rz y p is y w a n a r ó ż n ic o m w ra m a c h sy s te m u s k ła d n io w e g o , lecz w y n ik a z u w a r u n k o w a ń p ro c e s ó w e k s te rn a liz a c ji ję zyka w k o m u n ik a c ji.
H \ i i a P i ■ \
11. In t r o d u c t i o n
I n v e s tig a tio n s in t o t h e n a t u r e o f in tr a lin g u is t ic s y n t a c tic v a r i a t io n in n a t u r a l la n g u a g e s m a y fo c u s o n v a r i o u s q u e s t io n s , such as t h e q u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e lo cus o f v a r i a t io n a n d t h e r e l a t io n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e p h e n o m e n a c o n s id e r e d t o be m a r k e d a n d t h e lin g u is t ic p a t t e r n s t a k e n t o be regula r. T he d is t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o r e a n d t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e g r a m m a r o f a la n g uag e has g u id e d a lin e o f r e s e a rc h in s y n t a c tic t h e o r y w h i c h has led t o s o m e n e w in s ig h ts in t o t h e n a t u r e o f l a n g u a g e - in te r n a l v a r i a t io n . T h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o re a n d t h e p e r i p h e r y m a k e s it p o s s ib le t o te a s e a p a r t th e s e d a ta w h ic h are r e g u la r a n d s e e m t o f o l l o w f r o m t h e u n iv e rs a l p r in c ip le s o f g r a m m a r f r o m t h e ir r e g u l a r a n d la n g u a g e - s p e c if ic o n es , w h o s e p re s e n c e in a p a r t i c u la r la n g u a g e is t a k e n t o be a c c id e n t a l an d c o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e his t o r y o f t h e la n g uag e.
O n e o f t h e loci o f s y n t a c tic v a r i a t io n in English is r e la t e d t o s o -c a lle d a r
g u m e n t d r o p o b s e r v e d in d i f f e r e n t s t y lis t ic a lly - m a r k e d re g is te rs c o m p a r e d
w i t h w h a t is f o u n d in t h e n e u t r a l v a r i e t y used in e v e r y d a y c o n v e r s a tio n . Even t h o u g h d r o p p i n g t h e s u b je c t o r (s pe c if ic ) o b j e c t u s u a lly le ads t o u n g r a m m a t i c a l l y ((1) a n d (2)), s o m e s i t u a t i o n a l l y - m o t i v a t e d v a r ie t ie s m a k e an ex t e n s iv e use o f n o n - o v e r t a r g u m e n t s , as s h o w n in (3)-(7) f r o m R u p p e n h o f e r an d M ic h a e l is ( 2 0 1 0 : 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 ) : 1 (1) * ( T h e y ) like w h is k y . (2) T h e y like * ( w h is k y ) . (3) S w e e t Lassi I n g re d ie n t s : 1 S e rv in g Plain y o g u r t 1 c u p S ugar 2 t a b le s p o o n s Ice Cubes
M ethod: Blend all the ingredients in an electronic blender. Serve 0 cold.
(4) Check m oto r protection filte r every tim e you change the paper filte r bag. Replace 0 by a new one if it is very dirty.
(5) 0 C ontains alcohol.
(6) 0 read M i c h e l e t ; 0 w r o t e t o D e s m o n d a b o u t his p o e te s s ; L. o u t a t Fabi
ans; 0 p layed g r a m o p h o n e ; ...
(7) He h a m m e r e d 0 w i d e o f G a ry W a ls h 's e x p o s e d net.
T h e e x a m p le s in (3)-(7 ) illu s t r a t e t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f a r g u m e n t d r o p f o r t h e r e c ip e re gister, p r o d u c t u s e r m a n u a ls , la be l s t a t e m e n t s (la b e le s e ), t h e d ia r y
1 As is standard in the ore tica l linguistic literature, u n g ra m m a tic a lly is indicated w ith th e symbol *, hence a bracketed expression prefixed w ith * designates im possib ility o f o m ittin g th e expression(s) in brackets; a rg u m e nt drop is indicated w ith 0 here.
€ n i i i I n i i i. \ i m s s I t n v u s 1
411
C i a h h v i . . .register, a n d s p o r ts m a t c h r e p o r t s , r e s p e c tiv e ly . W h a t e x a m p le s like th e s e d e m o n s t r a t e is t h a t d i f f e r e n t g r a m m a t ic a l o p t i o n s in a la n g u a g e m a y v a r y ac c o r d in g t o c o n t e x t o f use. In t h is pape r, t h e c o n t e x t s p e c ifie d b y a c o l le c t io n o f c o - o c c u r r in g f e a t u r e s is ta k e n t o c o n s t i t u t e a register. T h e t e r m r e g is t e r has b e e n a s s u m e d in Z w ic k y a n d Z w ic k y (1 9 8 1 ) t o r e fe r t o t h e c o n ju n c t io n o f t h r e e m a i n p r o p e r t i e s , n a m e ly t h e lin g u is tic f o r m ( w h ic h con s is ts o f t h e o r t h o g r a p h i c , p h o n o lo g ic a l, m o r p h o lo g ic a l , lexical, s y n ta c tic , o r d is c o u rs e - r e la t e d s p e c ific a tio n s ) , t h e e x t r a - l in g u i s ti c c o n t e x t , a n d t h e f u n c t i o n ( s ) o f t h e lin g u is tic f o r m s in t h e s p e c if ie d c o n t e x t s . By w a y o f illu s t r a t io n , o n e o f t h e lin g u is t ic f e a t u r e s o f t h e s t y lis t ic a lly - m a r k e d reg is te rs e x e m p li f i e d a b o v e is t h e a c c e p t a b ili t y o f n o n - o v e r t a r g u m e n t s in t e r p r e t e d as h a v in g s p e c ific r e fe r e n ts . T h e c o n t e x t is c r e a te d b y t h e li m i t e d s et o f s it u a t io n s in w h ic h a g iv en e x a m p le w o u l d be a p p r o p r ia t e , such as a c o o k b o o k f o r (3) o r a r a d io b r o a d c a s t f o r (7). T he f u n c t i o n is in t h is case r e s t r ic t e d t o c o m m u n i c a t i n g a s p e c ific t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n , such as g iv in g i n s t r u c t i o n s a b o u t h o w t o m a k e o r use a c e r t a in p r o d u c t ((3)-(4)). T he d if f e r e n c e in t h e a c c e p t a b ili t y o f n o n - o v e r t ( m is s in g ) a r g u m e n t s in t h e n e u t r a l register, w h i c h can be seen as b e lo n g i n g t o t h e c o re g r a m mar, an d in t h e spe cia l reg is ters, w h i c h b e lo n g t o t h e p e r i p h e r y o f English, s h o w s t h a t t h e r e g is t e r - r e la t e d c o n t e x t o f use in flu e n c e s lin g u is t ic c ho ic e s an d speaks t o in t r a lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n . To e x p lo r e p r o b le m s r e la t e d t o o b je c t d r o p in t h e c o r e g r a m m a r a n d t h e p e r i p h e r y o f English, t h is p a p e r e x a m in e s m is s in g o b je c ts in t h e r e c ip e r e g is t e r c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e n e u t r a l register. I w i ll t r y t o s h o w t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n t h e c o re a n d t h e p e r i p h e r y o f a la n g u a g e can s e rv e t o c a p t u r e la n g u a g e - in te r n a l d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e lic e n s in g c o n d i t i o n s o n o b je c t d r o p a n d t h a t t h is p h e n o m e n o n is r e la t e d t o t h e processes o f t h e e x t e r n a l iz a t io n o f la n g u a g e r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e d iff e r e n c e s w i t h i n t h e s p e a k e r 's s y n t a c tic k n o w l e d g e o r s y n t a c tic c o m p e t e n c e . T h e p a p e r is s t r u c t u r e d as f o ll o w s . In s e c t io n 2, I o u t l i n e t h e d is t i n c t io n b e t w e e n t h e c o re a n d p e r ip h e r a l g r a m m a r as c o n c e iv e d o f w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a tiv e a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f la n g u a g e . In s e c t io n 3, t h e e m p ir ic a l p i c t u r e o f o b je c t d r o p in English is p r e s e n te d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e n e u t r a l v a r i e t y an d t o t h e r e c ip e register. S e c tio n 4 is c o n c e r n e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t w a ys o f c a p t u r i n g t h e p e r i p h e r y - r e l a t e d o b s e r v a tio n s , w h i c h raise q u e s t io n s p e r t a in in g t o t h e s o u rc e o f t h e in tr a lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n in v e s t ig a t e d he re. C o n c lu d in g r e m a r k s are o f f e r e d in s e c t io n 5. 2 . ( i l l A N D I I I I I I I I VI I I . A M H U T h e d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n t h e c o re a n d p e r ip h e r y o f a la n g u a g e has t o be v ie w e d a g a in s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e c o n c e p t o f U n iv e rs a l G r a m m a r (UG), w h i c h is o n e o f t h e b u ild in g b locks o f t h e g e n e r a t iv e f r a m e w o r k . G e n e r a lly
M a k i a I iia
s p e a k in g , in t h e g e n e r a t iv e t h e o r y , t h e p r i m a r y o b je c t o f s t u d y are t h e u n c o n s c io u s m e n t a l s tates o f k n o w le d g e o f la n g u a g e r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x t e r n a l m a n if e s t a t io n s o f t h e s e s ta te s .2 UG is ta k e n t o be a m e c h a n is m s p e c ific t o la n g u a g e (as o p p o s e d t o o t h e r c o g n i t i v e c a p a c itie s ), w h i c h c o n s t it u t e s a p a r t o f t h e g e n e ti c e n d o w m e n t o f h u m a n s . T ra d itio n a lly , UG has b e e n a s s u m e d t o c o n t a in a s et o f p r in c ip le s a n d p a r a m e te r s , t h e f o r m e r b e in g u n i f o r m across all p o s s ib le la n g u a g e s a n d t h e la t t e r p r o v id i n g a li m i t e d n u m b e r o f p r e d e t e r m in e d c h o ic e s .3 For in s ta n c e , t h a t la n g u a g e is b u i l t f r o m d is c r e t e u n it s such as p h o n e m e s a n d w o r d s is a u n iv e rs a l p r in c ip le , w h e r e a s w h e t h e r a s e n t e n c e m u s t ha ve an o v e r t l y rea liz e d s u b je c t o r n o t is a p a r a m e te r , w h i c h has
b e e n ta k e n t o d is tin g u is h la n g u a g e s such as English, w h i c h (usu a lly ) d o n o t t o l e r a t e nu ll s u b je c ts in f i n i t e s e n te n c e s ( [ - N u l l S u b je c t]) , f r o m la ng uag es such as Polish, Ita lia n, C h in ese, etc., w h ic h d o ( [+ N u ll S u b je c t]) . P rin c ip les t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e v a lu e s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s s et as (+) o r as ( - ) by e x p o s u r e t o a p a r t i c u la r la n g u a g e ha ve b e e n t a k e n t o c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o re g r a m m a r o f t h e la n g u a g e . L in g u is tic fa c ts n o t a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e m e c h a n is m s o f f e r e d by UG have b e e n v ie w e d as f o l l o w i n g s o le ly f r o m t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f a p a r t i c u la r la n g u a g e a n d have b e e n r e f e r r e d t o as t h e p e r ip h e r y . As Joseph ( 1 9 9 2 : 3 1 8 / 2 0 0 0 : 1 8 5 ) n o te s , o n e o f t h e f ir s t s tu d ie s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n t h e c o re a n d p e r ip h e r a l g r a m m a r is C h o m s k y a n d Lasnik (19 7 7 ), w h e r e , as n o t e d a b o v e , t h e c o r e is se en as t h e u n m a r k e d re s u lt o f t h e o p t i o n s s p e c if ie d b y UG a n d t h e p e r i p h e r y re fe rs t o t h e s e e le m e n t s o f g r a m m a r w h i c h r e s u lt s o le ly f r o m e x p e r ie n c e . This d i s t i n c t io n r e fle c t s t h e v ie w s t h a t t h e m a n if e s t a t io n s o f lin g u is t ic c o m p e t e n c e are a r e s u lt o f t h e i n t e r a c t io n o f t h e c o n t e n t o f UG as s h a p e d by lin g u is tic da ta d u r in g t h e p e r io d o f la n g u a g e a c q u i s it io n a n d s o m e a c c id e n t a l e l e m e n t s o f a la n gu age, w h i c h are n o t p r e d e t e r m i n e d by UG, as t h e f o l l o w i n g q u o t e f r o m C h o m s k y (1 9 9 5 ) m a k e s cle ar:
For w o r k in g pu rpo ses (and n o t h in g m o r e th a n th a t) , w e m ay m ake a ro ugh and t e n ta tiv e d is tin c tio n b e t w e e n t h e core o f a language and its pe rip h ery, w h e r e t h e core consists o f w h a t w e t e n ta tiv e ly assu me t o be t h e p u re in sta n tia tio n s o f UG and t h e p e r ip h e r y consists o f m ark e d ex ceptio ns ( irre g u lar verbs, etc.). N o te t h a t t h e p e r ip h e r y will also ex h ib it p ro p e rtie s o f UG (e.g., a b la u t p h e n o m e n a ) , th o u g h less trans p are ntly . A reasonable ap proach w o u ld be t o focus a t t e n tio n on t h e core system, p u ttin g aside p h e n o m e n a
2 This d istin ctio n is referred t o in th e literature via th e o p p ositio n o f l-language (com petence) versus E-language (perform ance).
3 In light o f th e recent de ve lop m e n ts in th e generative linguistic theory, th e a p p ro priateness o f this division and many related proble m s have become th e subject of intense debate (cf., a.o., Boeckx 2010, Richards 2008, SigurSsson 2010). As these is sues are n o t o f chie f im p orta n c e to th e discussion in th e present paper, th e y w ill not be considered in detail here. See W illim (this v olu m e) fo r some discussion.
C n h i I n i i m h k m s B i i w i i s 1 4 i i t i A > t a \ i . . .
t h a t result f r o m histo rical accidents, diale ct m ix tu r e , personal idiosyncrasies, and t h e like. (Chom sky 1 9 9 5 :1 9 - 2 0 )
T h e c o n c e p ts o f t h e c o r e a n d p e r i p h e r y a re m o r e b r o a d ly d is c us s e d in C h o m s k y ( 1 9 8 1 ), w h e r e t h e c o re is c o n s id e r e d t o be t h e s y s te m o f g r a m m a r in an id e a liz e d s p e a k e r a n d t h e c o re a n d p e r i p h e r y ta k e n t o g e t h e r are seen as c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e s y s te m o f g r a m m a r r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e m in d o f an i n d i v id u a l a c q u i r i n g a la n g u a g e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a p a r t i c u l a r s p e e c h c o m m u n it y . T h e w a y s in w h i c h t h e n o t i o n o f t h e p e r i p h e r y has b e e n d e s c r ib e d in t h e v a r i o u s stages o f t h e g e n e r a t iv e p a r a d ig m ha ve b e e n s u m m a r iz e d in J os e ph ( 1 9 9 2 : 32 3 -4 , 2 0 0 0 : 190) in t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y : (8) T he c o n t e n t s o f t h e p e r i p h e r y in t h e C h o m s k y a n p a r a d ig m : a. m a r k e d ; n o n - o p t i m a l in t e r m s o f e v a lu a t io n m e t r i c ( 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 1 ) b. w h a t is a d d e d o n a f t e r f ix in g o f c o r e g r a m m a r (1 9 8 6 ) c. s y n t a c tic a n a lo g u e o f ir r e g u l a r v e r b s (1 9 7 7 ) d. n o t d e t e r m i n e d b y p a r a m e t e r s o f UG (19 8 1 , 19 8 6 ) e. e x a m p le s : b o r r o w i n g s , h is to r ic a l res idue s , in v e n t i o n s (19 8 1 ) f. r e la x in g c e r t a in c o n d i t i o n s o f c o r e g r a m m a r (19 8 1 , 71 9 8 2 ? , 19 86 ) g. p ro cess o f a n a lo g y (19 8 1 ) h. e x c e p t io n s , n o n - p r o d u c t i v e ru le s (19 8 2 ) i. e x a m p le s : h i e r a r c h ie s o f a c c e s s ib ility (1 9 8 2 ) j. e x a m p le s : ir r e g u l a r m o r p h o lo g y , id io m s (1 9 8 6 ) C o m m e n t i n g on t h e a b o v e , J oseph sug ge sts t h a t i n t r o d u c i n g t h e n o t io n s o f t h e c ore a n d t h e p e r i p h e r y c o n f la t e s f o u r ty p e s o f d i s t i n c t io n s m a d e in li n g u is tic s, n a m e ly n a t u r e - c o n v e n t i o n , a n a lo g y - a n o m a ly , s y n c h r o n ic - d i a c h r o n - ic, u n m a r k e d - m a r k e d , a n d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p e r i p h e r y is d e r iv e d f r o m t h e a s s u m p t io n t h a t :
ir r e g u la r it y in la n g u a g e is th e re s u lt o f m a lfu n c t io n - u n n a tu r a l process, p sy ch o lo g ic a l in te rv e n tio n , f a il u r e to observe core c o n s tra in ts f u l l y o r to a b a n don th e m f u l l y w h e n n e w core c o n s tra in ts a re in tro du c ed. (Joseph 1992:
3 2 5 /2 0 0 0 : 192, italics in original).
H o w e v e r, e v e n t h o u g h t h e p e r ip h e r a l e l e m e n t s o f g r a m m a r a re see n as r e s u lt in g f r o m a c c id e n t a l fa c t o r s p e c u l ia r t o in d iv i d u a l la ng uag es , t h e p e r i p h e r y is still ta k e n t o be c le a r ly s t r u c t u r e d o r e v e n r e la t e d t o t h e c o re in s y s t e m a t ic w a ys. This v i e w has b e e n e x p re s s e d in C h o m s k y ( 1 9 8 2 ), w h o p o s t u la t e s t h a t t h e m a r k e d c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p e r i p h e r y are r e la t e d t o t h e c o re g r a m m a r by, f o r in s ta n c e , r e la x in g s o m e c o re g r a m m a r c o n s t ra in ts . This w a y o f p e r c e iv in g t h e r e l a t io n b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e g r a m m a t ic a l s y s te m o f a la n g u a g e has lead t o c r it ic is m a n d t o callin g t h e a p p r o p r ia t e n e s s
Hai i v I i ia
o f p o s it in g t h e d i s t i n c t io n in t h e f ir s t place in t o q u e s t io n (cf., a.o., J oseph 1992 , 20 0 0 ).
F rom t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f la n g u a g e a c q u is it io n , t h e p e r i p h e r y is a n e c e s s ary t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t . It c ov e rs t h e s et o f lin g u is t ic d a ta , s uch as ir r e g u la r v e r b s a n d i n f l e c t io n a l m o r p h o lo g y , w h ic h m u s t be le a r n e d s o le ly o n t h e basis o f t h e i n p u t f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . In t h is c o n n e c t i o n , G o ld b e r g (2 0 0 3 ) critic iz e s t h e g e n e r a t iv e a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f la n g u a g e a n d a rg ue s t h a t t h e m e c h a n is m s e m p l o y e d in le a r n in g t h e p e r ip h e r a l p h e n o m e n a can also be used t o le a rn t h e c o re g r a m m a r , t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e d i s t i n c t io n s u p e r f l u ous. H o w e v e r , Crain (2 0 1 0 ) o ffe r s c o n v in c in g a r g u m e n t s a g a in s t G o ld b e r g 's c o n c lu s io n s f r o m t h e s t r u c t u r e o f lo gic a l e x p re s s io n s in la n g u a g e . F u r t h e r m o r e , Yang (2 0 1 0 ) a rg u e s t h a t c h ild la n g u a g e d a ta s p e a k t o t h e issue o f t h e c o r e / p e r i p h e r y d i s t i n c t io n , p r o v id i n g s u p p o r t f o r its p u r p o s e f u ln e s s . Thus, it s e e m s t h a t t h e r e l a t io n o f t h e p e r i p h e r y t o t h e c o re t h a t is a s s u m e d in t h e s t u d y o f n a t u r a l la n g u a g e s h o u ld n o t b e t a k e n t o i m p l y t h a t t h e r e is n o m e r i t in d i s t i n g u is h in g b e t w e e n t h e t w o .
T h e c o r e / p e r i p h e r y d i s t i n c t io n has also b e e n a p p lie d t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e m a r k e d g r a m m a t ic a l fa c ts r e la t e d t o m a r k e d reg is ters, w h i c h a re i n c o n g r u o u s w i t h w h a t is f o u n d in t h e n e u t r a l register. To s h o w t h a t t h e n o t io n s o f t h e c o r e a n d p e r i p h e r y d o n o t o n ly p r o v id e a w a y o f a n a ly z in g t h e i r r e g u l a r e l e m e n t s w h ic h a p p e a r in a la n g u a g e , b u t t h a t t h e y can also p r o v e r e le v a n t f o r c a p t u r in g l a n g u a g e - in t e r n a l v a r i a t io n p h e n o m e n a , t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t io n discusses t h e o b j e c t d r o p d a ta f r o m t h e r e c ip e r e g is t e r in c o m p a r is o n w i t h t h e n e u t r a l r e g is t e r o f English. T h e d i f f e r e n c e s are t h e n c o n s id e r e d f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e d i s t i n c t io n u n d e r d is c u s s io n in s e c tio n 4. 3 . C m c i i i i i i s ICn c i i s i : t h e i h i i u i a i c m f c c i
As a lr e a d y n o t e d , d r o p p i n g a s p e c ific o b je c t in English leads t o u n g r a m m a t i c a l l y , un le ss s uch an o b j e c t a p p e a r s in o n e o f t h e s ty lis tic a lly m a r k e d re g is t e rs . Even w h e n o b j e c t d r o p is p o s s ib le u n d e r s o m e c o n d i t i o n s in t h e n e u t r a l v a r i e t y o f English, a c le a r d i f f e r e n c e in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n can be d e t e c t e d in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f nu ll o b je c t s in a n e u t r a l a n d a spe cia l re gister, such as t h e r e c ip e register, il lu s t r a t e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s f r o m M a s s a m and R o be rg e ( 1 9 8 9 : 1 3 7 ) :
(9) Eat q u ic k ly ! ( w e 'r e in a rush)
(10) R e m o v e c o o k ie s f r o m o v e n . Eat q u ic k ly , ( b e f o r e t h e y c o o l)
T h e r e s e e m s t o be a c le a r sense in w h ic h t h e o v e r t r e a liz a tio n o f t h e o b je c t a lte rs t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f (9) b u t n o t o f (10), as s h o w n in (11) a n d (12), re s p e c t iv e ly :
€ ) n I I I I s
111
\ l I I I v s I I m i l s f 4 I t ( * A H H V I . . . (11) Eat t h e m q u ic k ly ! ( w e 'r e in a rush) (12) R e m o v e c o o k ie s f r o m o v e n . Eat t h e m q u ic k ly , ( b e fo r e t h e y coo l) W h e n t h e o b j e c t is n o t p h o n e t i c a l l y rea liz e d in a n e u t r a l c o n t e x t , t h e e v e n t d e s c r ib e d in t h e s e n t e n c e is n a t u r a l ly in t e r p r e t e d as an a c t i v i t y ((9)), sug- g e s t i n g t h a t in t h is s i t u a t i o n t h e r e has b e e n a s h ift f r o m t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t t o t h e a c t iv i t y r e a d in g o f t h e v e r b a l p r e d ic a t e . Thus, (9) c a n n o t be i n t e r p r e t e d in t h e s a m e w a y as (11), w h i c h c le a r ly in v o lv e s an a c c o m p l i s h m e n t p r e d ic a t e . T h e s a m e is n o t t r u e o f t h e o m i s s io n o f t h e o b j e c t in t h e re c ip e register, as t h e o b je c t in (10), e v e n t h o u g h p h o n e t i c a l l y u n r e a liz e d , is still u n d e r s t o o d as s p e c ific a n d is i n t e r p r e t e d in p a ra lle l w i t h t h e o v e r t p r o n o u n in (12). To u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s o n o b je c t d r o p in d i f f e r e n t lin g u is tic a n d e x t r a - l in g u i s ti c c o n t e x t s , t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f o b je c t d r o p in t h e n e u t r a l r e g is t e r o f English a n d in t h e r e c ip e c o n t e x t are d iscusse d in g r e a t e r d e t a il in s e c tio n s 3.1. a n d 3.2., r e s p e c tiv e ly . 3.1. O b je c t d ro p in core g r a m m a r G e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , English m a k e s it p o s s ib le f o r o b je c ts t o be d r o p p e d w h e n t h e y are i n t e r p r e t e d as g e n e ric , as s h o w n in (13) f r o m G o ld b e r g (2 0 0 1 : 506), o r w h e n t h e a c t io n d e s c r ib e d is h a b i t u a l o r it e r a tiv e , as il lu s t r a t e d in (14) f r o m G o ld b e r g ( 2 0 0 1 : 5 0 7 ), an d (15) a n d (16) f r o m M i t t w o c h ( 2 0 0 5 : 246, 248):(13) Tig ers o n ly kill a t n ig h t. (14) S carface k ille d again. (15) I u s u a lly b u y in t h a t sh o p .
(16) T h e y m u r d e r e d , ra p e d , a n d p l u n d e r e d .
In all o f t h e a b o v e e x a m p le s , t h e o b je c ts a re n o n s p e c if ic a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d in g o f i n f o r m a t i o n b y t h e lin g u is tic o r e x t r a - l in g u i s ti c c o n t e x t f a c ilit a t e s t h e o m is s io n o f t h e o b je c t a n d m ake s t h e r e c o v e r y o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e o b je c t po s s ib le . For e x a m p le , in (15) t h e t y p e o f t h e i t e m s b o u g h t w o u l d be i n d i c a te d by a s p e c ific s h o p p r e s e n t in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e u t t e r a n c e .
By c o n t r a s t , e l e m e n t s p r o m i n e n t in t h e d is c o u rs e u s u a lly c a n n o t b e o m i t t e d f r o m t h e p h o n e t i c r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f t h e s e n t e n c e in English. This is il lu s tr a te d b y t h e im p o s s ib ili t y o f o b j e c t d r o p in (17) f r o m G o ld b e r g ( 2 0 0 1 : 50 5): (17) * T h e t i g e r kille d. Even c o n s t r u in g t h e s e n t e n c e so as t o in t r o d u c e t h e r e p e a t e d r e a d in g o f t h e a c t io n d o e s n o t im p r o v e t h e a c c e p t a b ili t y o f t h e d e f i n i t e o b je c t b e in g le ft u n p r o n o u n c e d , as (18) f r o m G o ld b e r g ( 2 0 0 1 : 5 0 8 ) il lu s tra te s :
H \ I I A L-1 I A (18) W h e n it c o m e s t o t a s t y du sks, tig e r s lo v e t o kill * ( t h e m ) . H o w e v e r, t h e r e are s o m e c o n t e x t s in w h i c h t h e o m is s io n o f a d e f i n i t e o b je c t o n t h e e p is o d ic r e a d in g is a c c e p t a b le a n d can be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e o m i s s io n o f an u n s p e c if ie d o b j e c t in a h a b i t u a l c o n t e x t , as il lu s t r a t e d in (19) a n d (20) f r o m M i t t w o c h ( 2 0 0 5 : 25 0): (19) T h e y a tta c k e d at n ig h t. (n o n - i t e r a t i v e ) (20) T h e y u s u a lly a t t a c k a t n ig h t, ( i t e r a t i v e / h a b i t u a l ) (19) stresses t h e im p o r t a n c e o f b a c k g r o u n d in g , as t h e m is s in g o b je c t m u s t r e f e r h e r e t o a g r o u p o f p e o p le s a lie n t in t h e c o n t e x t . A d d it io n a l ly , s o m e o t h e r r e s t r ic t e d c o n t e x t s m a k e o b j e c t d r o p p o s s ib le e v e n w h e n t h e o b je c t is h ig h ly t o p ic a l, as il lu s t r a t e d in (21) f r o m G o ld b e r g (2 0 0 1 : 51 5):
(21) A: Let's g e t all o f t h e s e u g ly dis h e s o u t o f h e re b e f o r e y o u r d a t e a r rives. B: OK, y o u b r e a k a n d I'll s w e e p . W h a t s e e m s t o license t h e o m i s s io n o f t h e o b j e c t in t h is case is t h e i m p l i c a t io n o f a r e p e a t e d a c t io n a n d t h e c o n t r a s t in v o lv e d (cf. C o te 1996 ). This is in d ic a t e d b y t h e u n g r a m m a t i c a l l y o f (22) f r o m G o ld b e r g (2 0 0 1 : 51 5), in w h i c h t h e la ck o f t h e p a ir e d a c t io n d e s c r ib e d by t h e s e c o n d c o n j u n c t in (21) b locks o b je c t d r o p : (22) Ok, y o u b r e a k * ( t h e m ) .
Thus, e v e n t h o u g h a d e f i n i t e o b je c t can be o m i t t e d in t h e s ty lis tic a lly - u n m a r k e d r e g is t e r in English in s o m e cases, t h e a b o v e fa c ts s h o w t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f d r o p p i n g s p e c ific o b je c ts in t h e n e u t r a l r e g is t e r s ta n d s in c o n t r a s t t o w h a t can be o b s e r v e d in s o m e specia l regis ters.
3 .2 . O b je c t d ro p in t h e p e rip h e ry : t h e recipe register
A l t h o u g h n o t o b lig a t o r y , t h e o m is s io n o f o b je c ts in re c ip e s is f r e q u e n t , as t h e r e s u lts o f t h e c o r p u s s t u d y o f c o n t e m p o r a r y re c ip e s c o n d u c t e d b y Culy (1 9 9 6 ) re v e al: a b o u t 4 0 % o u t o f all o b je c ts w e r e d r o p p e d in his c o r p u s a n d a b o u t 8 0 .4 % i f t h e r a t io o f m is s in g o b je c ts t o m is s in g a n d p r o n o m i n a l o b je c ts ta k e n t o g e t h e r is c o n s id e r e d t o t h e ex c lu s io n o f n o u n phrases. A c c o r d in g t o Z w ic k y a n d Z w ic k y ( 1 9 8 1 ), re c ip e s b e lo n g w i t h t h e te le g r a p h i c r e g is te rs , w h ic h are c h a r a c t e r iz e d m a i n ly by d e le t i o n o f e le m e n t s , w h e r e t h e c o n d i t i o n s on d e l e t i o n are r e g is t e r - in te r n a l a n d s u b je c t t o v a r i a t i o n . 4 T h a t o b je c t d r o p is t h e
4 O th e r telegraphic registers considered in th e ir paper are th e dia ry register, tele g ra phese, labelese, p ro d u ct user manuals, and note-takin g.
€ n i t r K i t i a i i m i n s 11 i v i i s D * t G u h h v I ' , h a llm a r k o f t h e r e c ip e r e g is t e r is b e s t il lu s t r a t e d by t h e t i t l e o f a n o v e l by C y n th ia P. L a w r e n c e , C h ill b e f o r e S e rv in g : A M y s t e r y N o v e l f o r F o o d Lovers. As p o in t e d o u t by R u p p e n h o f e r an d M ic h a e lis (20 1 0 ), t h e im p e r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t io n w i t h a n o n - o v e r t o b je c t i m m e d i a t e l y e v o k e s t h e n o t i o n o f a re c ip e e v e n o u t s id e o f t h e c o o k b o o k c o n t e x t . F u r t h e r m o r e , as H a e g e m a n ( 1 9 8 7 a ) o b s e rv e s , t h e p a r t o f t h e m a t e r i a l w h i c h is e lid e d is n o t ne c e s s a ry f o r a s u c cessful in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e in s t r u c t i o n in r e c ip e c o n te x ts . D e s p ite t h e f a c t t h a t im p e r a t iv e s a n d m is s in g o b je c ts s e e m t o be a d e f i n i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e r e c ip e re gister, as Z w ic k y a n d Z w ic k y (1 9 8 1 ) n o t e , c o o k b o o k w r i t e r s m a y s o m e t i m e s d e p a r t f r o m u s ing t h e r e g is t e r - c h a r a c t e r is tic c o n s t r u c t io n s t o in c lu d e a d d i t i o n a l p iece s o f i n f o r m a t i o n , as d e m o n s t r a t e d in ( 2 3 ) :5 (23) H e a t t h e o il a n d b u t t e r in a f r y i n g pan u n t il f o a m y , t h e n f r y t h e scallo ps f o r a b o u t 2 m in u t e s a side. If y o u are using big s callo ps, t h e n it is s o m e t im e s e a s ie r t o c u t t h e m in h a lf across. W h e n t h e y are c o o k e d , t h e y w i ll ha ve ju s t lo s t t h e i r r a w lo o k in t h e m id d le a n d be lu s c io u s ly t e n d e r , w h i l e g o ld e n a n d a l m o s t c a r a m e liz e d on t h e o u t s id e . A f t e r t h e f ir s t s e n te n c e , w h ic h c o n t a in s t h e f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r is tic o f t h e r e c ip e register, w h a t f o l l o w s are s e n te n c e s w h ic h d o n o t in v o lv e e i t h e r t h e im p e r a t iv e m o o d o r m is s in g o b je c ts b u t w h ic h s e rv e t o p r o v id e a d d i t i o n a l c o m m e n t s o n t h e in s tr u c tio n s .
3 .2 .1 . R e fere n tia l p ro p e rtie s o f missing objects
R e ga rd in g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m is s in g o b je c t s in t h e r e c ip e register, t h e i r r e f e r e n c e is r e s t r ic t e d t o a v e r y li m i t e d s et o f e n t it ie s a cce ssib le in t h e d is c o u rs e c o n t e x t . O n t h e basis o f his s t u d y o f a c o r p u s o f t e x t s o f recipes, Culy ( 1 9 9 6 : 94) d is tin g u is h e s t h e f o l l o w i n g ty p e s o f p o s s ib le d e n o t a t a o f t h e d i r e c t o b je c ts : (24) a. f in i s h e d p r o d u c t : t h e s u b je c t o f t h e r e c ip e b. a l m o s t d o n e : t h e stage at w h ic h t h e r e are n o f u r t h e r in g r e d ie n t s t o add c. w o r k i n g o n : t h e stages f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o a l m o s t d o n e d. o t h e r : t h is in c lu d e s in g r e d ie n t s , p o ts , o v e n , etc. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e f e r e n t s o f t h e o b je c ts in r e c ip e t e x t s are in t h e c o m m o n s c o p e o f in t e r e s t a n d a t t e n t i o n o f t h e s p e a k e r a n d t h e hearer, w h ic h is w h y t h e o m is s io n o f t h e o b j e c t d o e s n o t h i n d e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
s (23) is taken fro m http://w ww .nig ella.com/recip es/view/SCALLO PS-W ITH-THAI- SCENTED-PEA-PUREE-5314 [Date o f access: April 2010],
H \i. ia Kiji.'A
3 .2 .2 . D istrib u tio n o f missing objects
C o n s id e r in g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s in w h i c h o b je c ts can be u n r e a liz e d p h o n e t i cally, Culy (1 9 9 6 ) p o in ts o u t t h a t n o n - o v e r t o b je c ts are f o u n d m o s t ly w i t h p a r tic ip le s a n d im p e r a t iv e s a n d t h a t t h e y are t h e p r e f e r r e d o p t i o n w h e n t h e a n t e c e d e n t o f t h e o b je c t is p r e s e n t in a p r e c e d in g c la u s e .6 O b je c t d r o p s e e m s t o be d is fa v o r e d w i t h in fi n it iv e s a n d t e n s e d v e r b f o r m s , b u t it is n o t c o m p l e t e l y im p o s s ib le in t h e s e c o n t e x t s , as s h o w n in (25) f r o m Culy (19 9 6 : 97): (25) A t t h is p o i n t y o u m a y w r a p shells a i r t i g h t a n d s t o r e [0 ] a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e f o r up t o 4 days o r fr e e z e [0 ] f o r lo n g e r s torag e.
In a d d i t i o n , m is s in g o b je c t s can be a c c o m p a n ie d b y a d j u n c t cla uses and in f i n it iv a l c o m p l e m e n t s , as il lu s t r a t e d in (26) a n d (27) f r o m B e n d e r (1 9 9 9 : 65):
(26) Bake 0 until golden brown.
(27) Allow 0 to cool.
H o w e v e r , t h e r e a re s o m e o t h e r g r a m m a t ic a l f e a t u r e s w h i c h have an i n f lu e n c e o n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m is s in g o b je c ts b y r e s t r ic t in g t h e s et o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s in w h ic h t h e y a re lic ens e d. For in s ta n c e , it has b e e n s u g g e s te d in R u p p e n h o f e r a n d M ic h a e l is ( 2 0 1 0 : 4) t h a t f o r reg is te rs t o license a r g u m e n t d r o p , t h e a r g u m e n t has t o a p p e a r in a s p e c ific c o n s t r u c t io n , w h ic h is ta k e n t o be a c o n d i t i o n o n t h e n o n - o v e r t r e a liz a tio n o f t h a t a r g u m e n t . C o n s id e r (28):
(28) W h a t y o u w a n t t o d o is t h is . You ta k e t h e i n g r e d ie n t s a n d b l e n d * ( t h e m ) f o r 10 m in u t e s . T h e n y o u p o u r t h e mass in t o a pan a n d f r y * ( i t ) u n t il it's g o ld e n b r o w n . T h e n y o u t a k e * ( i t ) o u t o f t h e pa n a n d le t * ( i t ) c ool f o r an hour. Finally, y o u s e rv e * ( i t ) c old.
A c c o r d in g t o R u p p e n h o f e r a n d M ic h a e lis (20 10 ), t h e im p o s s ib ili t y o f leav in g t h e o b j e c t u n r e a liz e d p h o n e t i c a l l y in t h e a b o v e e x a m p le f o l l o w s f r o m t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t m is s in g o b je c ts can a p p e a r o n ly in im p e r a t iv e s t h a t ha ve n o n - o v e r t s u b je c ts . Yet, it s e e m s t h a t a d i f f e r e n t e x p la n a t io n o f t h e u n g r a m m a t i c a l l y o f t h e m is s in g o b je c ts in (28) m i g h t be m o r e a p p r o p r ia t e . In p a r tic u la r , t h e t e x t in (28) d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e lo n g t o t h e re c ip e register, as t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y s e n t e n c e s e e m s t o be c h a r a c t e r is tic o f t h e c o n v e r s a tio n a l
6 Note t h a t in register-neutral imperatives, obje ct drop leads to ungram maticality, as shown in (i) fr o m Ruppenhofer and Michaelis (2010: 161, bold in original):
© n i i i I n t e r a c t i o n s B e t w e e n i i t i < i v m a i a i . . . 1 0 9
r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o o k b o o k style . F u r t h e r m o r e , o v e r t s e c o n d p e r s o n s u b je c ts are n e v e r f o u n d in in s t r u c t i o n a l r e g is te rs w h i l e (2 8) c le a r ly illu s t r a t e s an i n s t r u c t io n , a n d t h u s (28) c a n n o t be an e x a m p le o f t h e r e c ip e register. G iv en t h a t m is s in g o b je c ts a re lic e n s e d o n ly in c e r t a in spe c ia l reg is ters, t h e u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f t h e o b je c t d r o p in (28) is t o be e x p e c t e d .
M o r e o v e r , as has b e e n p o in t e d o u t in M a s s a m a n d R o b e rg e ( 1 9 8 9 : 1 3 6 ) , m is s in g o b je c ts are u n g r a m m a t ic a l in t h e d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t io n :
(29) Take c o o k ie s f r o m o v e n . Give y o u r g u e s ts * ( t h e s e c o o k ie s ) i m m e d i a t e
ly-(30) Find t h e c h ild r e n . Give * ( t h e m ) t h e c o o k ie s im m e d ia t e ly .
It is p la u s ib le t h a t t h is r e s t r ic t io n is r e la t e d t o in t e r p r e t i v e f a c t o r s , as w i t h o u t b o t h o b je c ts e x p re s s e d o v e r t l y in t h e d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t io n , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s y n t a c tic f u n c t i o n s o f t h e o v e r t a n d t h e m is s in g o b j e c t m i g h t be d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y w i t h n o o v e r t e v id e n c e a v a ila b le t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e m is s in g a r g u m e n t f u n c t i o n s as t h e d i r e c t o r t h e in d i r e c t o b je c t o f t h e v e r b . F u r t h e r m o r e , o b je c t d r o p in t h e r e c ip e c o n t e x t is r e s t r ic t e d t o t h e c o m p l e m e n t s o f v e r b s a n d is u n a c c e p t a b le , f o r in s ta n c e , w i t h c o m p l e m e n t s o f p r e p o s it io n s , as s h o w n in (31) f r o m H a e g e m a n (1 9 8 7 a : 25 5), w h e r e t h e e n t i r e PP can be p h o n e t ic a l ly u n r e a liz e d b u t t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f t h e p r e p o s i t i o n c a n n o t be d e le t e d o n its o w n : (31) a. R e m o v e t h e v a n illa p o d f r o m t h e m ix t u r e . b. R e m o v e t h e v a n illa po d. c. * R e m o v e t h e v a n illa p o d f r o m . It s e e m s t h a t t h is e f f e c t m i g h t be a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e e c o n o m y c o n s id e r a t io n s , as p r e p o s it io n s s e le c t f o r t h e case o f t h e i r c o m p l e m e n t , w h i c h is a s s o c ia te d w i t h t h e i n h e r e n t t h e t a - r o l e t h a t t h e p r e p o s i t i o n assigns t o its c o m p l e m e n t . Hence, f o r s u b - d e le t io n t o be po s s ib le , t h e p r e p o s it io n w o u l d ha ve t o be f o c u s e d , w h i c h is n o t t h e case in (31). R e ga rd in g t h e lexical c o n s t r a in ts o n t h e t y p e s o f v e r b s w h o s e o b je c ts m a y be u n p r o n o u n c e d , M a s s a m a n d R o b e rg e ( 1 9 8 9 : 135) n o t e t h a t o b je c t d r o p is f o u n d w i t h " a f f e c t i n g " a n d " n o n - a f f e c t i n g " v e r b s , such as 'b re a k ', 'm e lt ' , ' p u t ' as w e ll as 'w a t c h ', b u t is n o t p e r m i t t e d w i t h p e r c e p t i o n o r "p s y c h " v erb s , w h i c h t h e y illu s t r a t e w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s : (32) P ut pan o v e r high h e a t an d ad d w a te r . * S e e / * H e a r 0 b o il b e f o r e a d d i n g o t h e r in g r e d ie n t s .
(33) S erve 0 w i t h p a rs le y g a rn is h . E n j o y / * L ik e 0 as a m a in dish o r as a side dish.
i K w i a
H o w e v e r , it s e e m s t h a t t h e s it u a t io n h e r e is s i m i la r t o w h a t has b e e n s u g g e s te d w i t h r e s p e c t t o (28) a b o v e . N a m e ly , p e r c e p t i o n a n d " p s y c h " v e r b s a re n o t u s u a lly used in recipes, w h ic h m i g h t i m p l y t h a t w h a t ru le s o u t t h e e x a m p le s in (32) an d (33) is t h e i r i n a p p r o p r ia t e n e s s w i t h i n t h e g iv e n register. T h e re c ip e r e g is t e r is a s ty le o f la n g u a g e e m p lo y e d f o r d e s c r ib i n g a c tiv itie s t h a t t h e a d d r e s s e e is e x p e c t e d t o p e r f o r m a n d t h u s s ta tiv e v e r b s o f p e r c e p t i o n a n d s t a t iv e " p s y c h " v e r b s ha ve n o use in r e c ip e c o n t e x t s . T hus, it s e e m s t h a t all v e r b s w h i c h n a t u r a l ly a p p e a r in re c ip e s can be use d w i t h m is s ing o b je c ts (cf. also Culy 19 9 6 ).
3 .3 . S u m m a ry o f c o n tras tiv e o bs erv atio ns
T h e a b o v e d is c u s s io n a i m e d at p o i n t i n g o u t s o m e o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f o b je c t d r o p in English. As w a s s h o w n in s e c t io n 3.1., t h e n e u t r a l v a r i e t y m ake s it po s s ib le f o r a n o n s p e c if ic o b je c t t o be le ft u n p r o n o u n c e d b u t it u s u a lly d o e s n o t t o l e r a t e o m is s io n o f o b je c ts w i t h s p e c ific r e fe r e n ts . By c o n t ra s t , in t h e r e c ip e r e g is t e r f r e q u e n t use is m a d e o f s p e c ific n o n - o v e r t o b je c ts a n d t h u s t h e y can be c o n s id e r e d o n e o f t h e f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r is tic o f t h is register. This is w h y t h e e x a m p le s in (34) a n d in (35) f r o m Z w ic k y a n d Z w ic k y ( 1 9 8 1 : 537) can be ea s ily i d e n t i f i e d as b e lo n g i n g t o t h e r e c ip e re g is te r a n d as b e in g m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e in a c o n v e r s a tio n , r e s p e c tiv e ly :
(34) C o o k s l o w ly u n t il te n d e r , t u r n i n g a n d b a s t in g oc c a s io n a lly , o n e t o o n e a n d o n e - q u a r t e r ho urs .
(35) C o o k it s l o w ly u n t il it's t e n d e r , t u r n i n g a n d b a s tin g it oc c a s io n a lly , f o r o n e t o o n e a n d o n e - q u a r t e r ho urs .
As C o te (1 9 9 6 ) n o te s , it s e e m s t h a t w h a t licenses t h e a v a ila b ilit y o f t h e m is s in g o b je c t o p t i o n is t h e p o s s ib ilit y o f a s s o c ia tin g t h e s e n t e n c e w i t h t h e r e c i pe c o n t e x t r a t h e r t h a n a n y s p e c ific f e a t u r e o f g r a m m a r o r a n y lexical c h o ic e s c o i n c id in g w i t h it. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e f e r e n t s o f t h e n o n s p e c if ic m is s in g o b je c ts in t h e n e u t r a l r e g is t e r are id e n t i f i a b l e o n t h e basis o f t h e s e m a n t ic s o f t h e v e r b , as in (36), w h e r e t h e o b je c t is u n d e r s t o o d as d e n o t i n g a m e a l: (36) I have a l r e a d y e a te n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e f e r e n t s o f t h e m is s in g o b je c ts in re c ip e s are alw a y s in t h e c u r r e n t fo c u s o f a t t e n t i o n a n d t h e i r t o p ic a l s ta tu s e n a b le s t h e r e c o v e r y o f t h e i r c o n t e n t .
T h a t such c le a r d i ff e r e n c e s in t h e lic e n s in g o f m is s in g o b je c ts are f o u n d w i t h i n o n e la n g u a g e raises i m p o r t a n t q u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e s o u r c e o f t h is v a r i a t io n a n d t h e w a y s in w h i c h t h e c o re c o n s t ra in ts , w h o s e e ffe c ts are o b s e rv e d in t h e n e u t r a l r e g is t e r are r e la t e d t o t h e p e r ip h e r a l p h e n o m e n o n o f
On m l s i n / v « i h m I i m u s O 1 1 I i v t m v i . . .
o b j e c t d r o p in t h e r e c ip e register. T h e s e issues a re t h e fo c u s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c tio n .
4
. P e r i p h e r y a s a s o l r c e o r v a r i a t i o nAs t h e c o m p a r is o n o f t h e m is s in g o b j e c t - r e la t e d d a ta f o u n d in t h e n e u t r a l a n d t h e r e c ip e reg is te rs o f English in d ic a te s , c o n s t r a in ts o n lic e n s in g a lin g u is tic p h e n o m e n o n m a y d i f f e r s ig n if ic a n t ly w i t h i n o n e la n g u a g e . V a rio u s w a y s o f c a p t u r in g such d is c r e p a n c ie s s e e m c o n c e iv a b le . For in s ta n c e , in t r a lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n m a y be seen as in v o lv i n g d i f f e r e n t g r a m m a r s in t h e s p e a k e r 's m in d (cf., e.g., Eide a n d A f a r li 2 0 0 8 ) o r a s u b s y s te m o f g r a m m a r a v a ila b le o n ly in p a r t i c u la r d is c o u rs e c o n t e x t s (cf., a.o., Culy 19 9 6 ). A lt e r n a t iv e ly , in t r a lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n can be ta k e n t o be r e la t e d in s o m e w a y s t o t h e d i f f e r e n t s e ttin g s o f s p e c ific UG p a r a m e t e r s o r t o t h e r e la x a t io n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s im p o s e d by t h e s e s e ttin g s (cf., e.g., H a e g e m a n 1 9 8 7 b , 19 87 c , 2 0 0 6 ). As t h e l a t t e r o p t io n s ha ve b e e n a s s u m e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e m is s in g o b je c ts f o u n d in recipes, t h e y are c o n s id e r e d in g r e a t e r d e t a il in t h e n e x t s e c tio n .
4 .1 . R e s e ttin g /re la x a tio n o f a p a r a m e t e r
T h e p o s s ib ilit y o f a n a ly z in g l a n g u a g e - in t e r n a l v a r i a t i o n as in v o lv i n g UG p a r a m e te r s has b e e n p u r s u e d by H a e g e m a n ( 1 9 8 7 b , 2 0 0 6 ) in r e l a t io n t o a r g u m e n t d r o p in s t y lis t ic a lly - m a r k e d reg is te rs o f English, w h i c h she as s u m es t o b e lo n g t o t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h is la n g u a g e . In p a r tic u la r , she sug ge sts t h a t t h e p a r a m e t r i c s e ttin g s m a y be a p p l ie d t o a n a ly z in g in tr a lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n , in a d d i t i o n t o a c c o u n t i n g f o r c ro s s - lin g u is tic d iff e re n c e s . F o llo w in g H u a n g (19 8 4 ), H a e g e m a n ( 1 9 8 7 b ) a d o p t s t h e d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n s u b je c t - p r o m i-
n e n t / s e n t e n c e - o r ie n t e d la n g u a g e s , in c lu d in g S ta n d a r d English a n d French,
a n d t o p ic - p r o m i n e n t / d is c o u r s e - o r ie n t e d la n g u a g e s , t o w h i c h C h in e s e a n d Jap an ese b e lo n g . As t o p i c - p r o m i n e n t la n g u a g e s can d r o p t o p ic a l e l e m e n t s r a t h e r fre e ly , H a e g e m a n (1 9 8 7 b ) sug ge sts t h a t t h e r e c ip e r e g is t e r bears c h a r a c te r is tic s o f t h e t o p i c - p r o m i n e n t / d i s c o u r s e - o r i e n t e d la ng uag es . G iv en t h a t she a s s u m e s t h a t s u b je c t- v e rs u s t o p i c - p r o m i n e n c e o r s e n t e n c e - versus d i s c o u r s e - o r ie n t a t io n m a y be re g a r d e d as p a r a m e t r i c cho ic e s , t h is m a k e s it p o s s ib le f o r h e r t o p r o p o s e t h a t o b j e c t d r o p in t h e r e c ip e r e g is t e r re s u lts f r o m t h e r e s e tt in g o f a p a r a m e t e r o f UG. H a e g e m a n (2 0 0 6 ) m o d if ie s s o m e w h a t h e r e a r lie r v ie w s o n r e g is t e r - s p e cific p a r a m e t e r r e s e tt in g by s u g g e s tin g t h a t a r g u m e n t d r o p p h e n o m e n a in English s h o u ld r a t h e r be p e r c e iv e d in t e r m s o f t h e r e la x a t io n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e c o re g r a m m a r in p e r ip h e r a l c o n s t r u c t io n s . In t h is s c e n a rio , t h e s t r u c t u r e s f o u n d in t h e spe cia l reg is te rs a n d u n g r a m m a t ic a l a c c o r d in g t o t h e c o n s t r a in ts im p o s e d by t h e c o r e g r a m m a r d o n o t in v o lv e p a r a m e t e r r e s e ttin g . This p o s s ib ilit y is d is m is s e d in r e l a t io n t o s u b je c t d r o p in t h e d ia r y
M a u a I i i a r e g is t e r in English (cf. e x a m p le (6) in t h e in t r o d u c t i o n ) o n t h e basis o f t h e d i ff e r e n c e s o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n t h e b e h a v io r o f t h e n u ll s u b je c ts in t h e d i a r y r e g is t e r an d u n p r o n o u n c e d s u b je c ts in la ng u a g e s in w h i c h t h is p r o p e r t y has b e e n a s c r ib e d t o a p a r a m e t e r w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a t iv e t r a d i t i o n . 7 In o t h e r w o r d s , s in c e s u b je c t d r o p - r e l a t e d p h e n o m e n a o b s e r v e d in t h e d ia r y re g is te r in English d i f f e r f r o m w h a t is t y p ic a lly f o u n d in p r o - d r o p la ng uag es, H aege- m a n (2 0 0 6 ) p ro p o s e s t h a t r e g is te r - s p e c ific d a ta a re d u e t o t h e re la x a tio n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s im p o s e d by a p a r t i c u la r p a r a m e t r i c s e t t in g r a t h e r t h a n a c h a n g e in t h e v a lu e o f t h e p a r a m e te r . I m p o r t a n t ly , H a e g e m a n 's (1 9 8 7 b , 2 0 0 6 ) s u g g e s tio n s a im a t e x p la in in g t h e p e r ip h e r a l a r g u m e n t d r o p p h e n o m e n a b y lo c a t in g t h e s o u r c e o f t h e in t r a lin g u is t ic v a r i a t io n w i t h i n t h e d o m a i n o f t h e s p e a k e r's t a c i t s y n ta c tic k n o w le d g e . In w h a t f o ll o w s , I c o n s id e r a d i f f e r e n t p o s s ib ilit y o f d e r iv in g t h e o b s e r v e d facts, w h i c h s h ifts t h e r e s p o n s ib i lit y f o r t h e r e g is te r - s p e c ific s et o f d a ta f r o m t h e s ta te o f k n o w l e d g e o f a la n g u a g e t o t h e pro c es s e s o f la n g u a g e e x t e r n a l iz a t io n in ( in te r p e r s o n a l) v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .