A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S L O D Z I E N S I S F O L IA LIN G U IST IC A 36, 1997
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O N E N G L IS H V E R B S E X P R E S S IN G N A T U R A L P H E N O M E N A
1. W H A T A RE NATURAL PH EN O M EN A ?
U noriginal as it m ay be, let m e begin w ith q u o tin g th ree d ictio n ary definitions:
“phenom enon - [...] fact o r occurrence, esp in n a tu re o r society, th a t c a n be perceived by th e senses” [H o rn b y (ed.) 1989: 927],
“natural - [...] of, concerned w ith o r pro d u ced by n a tu re (1), not by m a n ." [H o rn b y (ed.) 1989: 824], em phasis m ine,
“nature 1 - [...] the w hole universe, and every created, not m an-m ade thing" [H o rn b y (ed.) 1989: 825], em phasis m ine.
In view o f th a t, it becom es clear th a t m y concern here are verbs expressing facts tak in g place in n atu re, b u t n eith er “ p erfo rm ed b y ” n o r “ h ap p e n in g to ” m an . T herefo re all verbs w here m an is eith er th e ag en t o r th e experiencer are excluded from m y analysis. T h is restrictio n is certainly a rb itra ry an d p erh ap s arguable. Som e language users m ig h t insist th a t such verbs as urinate, bleed, o r sw eat belo n g to th e “ n a tu ra l p h e n o m e n a ” d o m a in , even th o u g h they describe processes c h a ra c te ristic to h u m a n beings. O bviously, th o u g h , since “ n a tu re ” is such a b ro a d term , th e absence o f this and o ther limits would m ake virtually every verb fit in to this dom ain.
T h e sem antic field o f verbs expressing n a tu ra l p h en o m en a m ay co n tain lexemes w hose sem antic p ro perties m ig h t suggest th eir belonging to an entirely different d om ain ; th e E nglish w ord thunder, p ro to ty p ically a verb o f so u n d , is a good exam ple here. O n the o th er h a n d , som e verbs from different sem antic fields m ight be regarded related to the “n atu ral ph en o m en a” d o m a in , b u t are n o t trea ted here as its m em bers; this concerns such lexemes
as (P o lish ) w yć (how l, o f th e w ind) o r błękitnieć (tu rn b lue, o f th e sky). T h e deciding fa cto r here is the fact o f co llo catin g (o r n o t co l locating ) w ith n a tu ra l phen o m en a. It is so n a tu ra l to associate thunder w ith w eath er th a t no list o f verbs expressing n a tu ra l p h en o m en a (w eather being certainly one o f them ) w ould be com plete w ith o u t it. W yć and błękitnieć, in tu rn , are ra th e r loosely connected w ith the d o m ain in q u estion ; ce rtain ly “ c o llo c a tio n ” is n o t th e rig h t w ord to d escrib e th is relatio n sh ip . T hey are exam ples o f w hat I call “ secondary fe atu re verb s” , expressing th e “ less ob v io u s” features o f a process, m ak in g its d escription m o re detailed . H o w l ju s t ad d s the sou nd elem ent to blow, we say th a t th e sky tu rn s blue w hen we w ish to co m m en t o n th e p rocess o f its clearing in a m ore precise way. T hese and o th er secondary fe atu re verbs en tail co rre sp o n d in g “ p rim a ry fe atu re verb s” , to be co n sisten t in th e nom en clatu re; in o th e r w ords, if the wind is how ling, th en it m u st be blow ing, if th e sky is tu rn in g blue, it m u st be clearing, a n d so on. F o r the sake o f space saving and coherence, seco nd ary fe atu re verbs are n o t analysed here.
H o w ev er precise I tried to be in d eterm in in g th e c rite ria fo r th e general selection o f “ n a tu ra l p h en o m en a” verbs, I w as n o t able, obviously, to m a k e them entirely satisfactory for any serious lexicographic w ork. A n y o n e trying to apply these criteria w hen com piling a th esau ru s m ight, o r even will, com e across controversial cases. I can only th in k o f one so lu tio n here: afte r you have used all the “ d e a d ” to o ls availab le (m o n o - an d bilingual dictionaries, thesauru ses, lexicons o f synonym s, an to n y m s, an d so on an d so fo rth ), the p en u ltim ate step o f th e selection p ro c ed u re is co n su ltin g n ativ e sp eak ers o f th e given lan g u ag e (th ere h a s to be a su b sta n tia l n u m b e r o f th em , an d th ey sh o u ld be as d iffe re n t fro m each o th e r in all respects as possible, so th a t you could have a wide range o f in fo rm atio n ), and the last step is m ak in g final decisions yourself. N a tiv e speakers play a crucial role in analyses like this one; they are th e u ltim a te a u th o rity lex ico g rap h ers ap p ly to in o rd e r to d ecide on th e m o st co n tro v e rsial cases. L et m e ju s t m e n tio n o ne exam ple: th e verb sim m er seemed, on the one h an d , to belong to th e d o m ain analysed h ere, a n d , on th e o th e r h a n d , to describe a m an -c o n tro lle d process. N ativ e speakers o f E nglish, asked w hether or n o t to include this verb in to th e d o m a in , re m a rk ed th a t sim m erin g m ay ta k e p lace by itself, w ith o u t h u m an intervention, and the fact th a t this interv en tio n freq uen tly occurs should be m en tio n ed , b u t should n o t exclude th e verb from the analysis. T h u s sim m er is p resent in th e tax o n o m y , an d the h u m a n in terv e n tio n elem ent is referred to in the C O N C E P T U A L E X T E N S IO N section (cf. p age 113).
2. T H E CLA SSIFICA TIO N
T h e follow ing is a possible arran g e m e n t o f verbs expressing n a tu ra l p h e n o m e n a . Lexem es belonging to th e u ltim a te c o n stitu e n ts a re listed afterw ard s. W henever a w ord has m o re th a n on e sense (I am , o f course, referring to polysem y), the senses are num bered (e.g. fr e e z e 1, fr e e z e 2) an d p u t in to a p p ro p ria te groups. I f a w ord has b u t one sense, and it seems to fit m o re th a n one g ro u p , then native speakers are asked to d eterm in e w here it should be put. F o r exam ple, m elt usually involves high tem p eratu re, b u t only as a secondary facto r w ith o u t w hich in som e cases th e process o f m elting m ay tak e place as well; therefore the verb is in the “ change s ta te ” g ro u p , n o t in th e “ te m p e ra tu re ” group. Freeze, in tu rn , has a change o f state as th e effect (liquid to solid), b u t low tem p eratu re is essential fo r th is ch an g e, so th e verb h ard ly suits an y o th e r g ro u p th a n th a t o f “ te m p e ra tu re ” verbs. T h e d o m ain in qu estio n is peculiar in the sense th a t som e lexemes there d o n o t fit any g ro u p a t all, fo rm in g one-m em ber classes (e.g. gravitate). A rguing th a t this is a feature o f th e d o m ain , n o t a fau lt o f the classification, I wish to rem ark , w ith o u t apology, th a t these lexem es are deliberately excluded from the analysis.
V E R B S E X P R E S S IN G N A T U R A L P H E N O M E N A
V E R B S E X P R E S S IN G G E O G R A P H IC A L P H E N O M E N A : weather verbs:
- (verbs referring to ) tem p eratu re o f th e air,
- sun,
- p recipitation,
- w ind,
- atm o sp h eric phenom ena,
- cloudiness, visibility an d brightness.
V E R B S E X P R E S S IN G P H Y S IC A L P H E N O M E N A : tem perature and its effec ts:
- (verbs referring to) low o r decreasing tem p eratu re,
- high o r increasing tem p eratu re,
- burning.
light,
change in sta te or shape:
- (verbs referring to change in) state,
V E R B S E X P R E S S IN G B IO L O G IC A L P H E N O M E N A : life :
- (verbs referring to) beginning o r flo urishin g o f life,
- end o r decline o f life.
spoiling.
O ne p o ten tial critical re m a rk I foresee here is th a t the tax o n o m y is n o t clear and precise. It seems qu ite o d d , fo r exam ple, th a t verbs expressing biological p h en o m en a should be divided into “life" verbs and “ spoiling" verbs, an d n o t an ything else. It is the pro ced u re o f selecting the verbs th a t a cco u n ts fo r this obscurity. T h e initial steps o f the selection involved skim m ing th ro u g h a d ictio n ary o f English, jo ttin g dow n w ords w hich seem ed to fit the definition o f n atu ra l p h en o m en a verbs as suggested in S ection 1, and ad d in g new w ords (o r rem oving in a p p ro p ria te ones) by stu d y in g d ictio n ary definitions, consulting n ative speakers, and so on. O nly afte r the list h ad been com pleted were the verbs classified acco rd in g to c e rtain co m m o n properties. T his shaped th e final tax o n o m y . T h e fact th a t, to refer to the previous exam ple, “ biological” English verbs are ap p a re n tly divisible only in to “ life” verbs an d “ spoiling” verbs seems q u ite interesting, b u t tim e and space lim its o f this article forbid dilatin g on it.
3. SE M A N T IC ANALYSIS - TH EO R Y
B efore E nglish verbs expressing n a tu ra l p h e n o m e n a are listed an d described, let m e briefly com m ent on those elem ents o f a possible sem antic analysis o f a verb which are relev ant to the d o m ain presented here. T h e p a tte rn is sim ilar to th a t used in analysing verbs fo r th e p urp o ses o f BiT (B ilingual T h esau ru s, an on-line dictio n ary and th esau ru s fo r speakers o f E nglish an d Polish currently developed at th e In stitu te o f E nglish S tudies in Ł ódź; fo r details, see e.g. L e w a n d o w s k a - T o m a s z c z y k 1993), b u t alteratio n s have been m ade. T h e follow ing n o tio ns will be used in describing the lexemes:
T H E M E - this refers to the p articip an t(s) o f the act described by th e verb. T H E M E is, in acco rdance w ith o u r defin ition o f n a tu ra l p h en o m en a , necessarily [ + inanim ate].
source - this is the necessary “cause” o f th e actio n (e.g. “co ld ” in shiver). lo catio n - the adverbial p h rase determ ining the place o f th e action, pre su p p o sitio n - e.g. “ being closed” for open.
m a n n e r - this elem ent is connected w ith one o f th e sense relation s, nam ely tro p o n y m y ; in brief, it sim ply answ ers the q uestio n “ h o w ” o r “ in w h a t w ay ” som ething is done.
tim e - this elem ent tells us “ w hen ” the actio n takes place; n av ig ate is related to sail by m eans o f tim e, because navig atio n necessarily takes place d u rin g sailing, n o t e.g. typing (cf. th e p h en o m en o n o f entailm en t m en tion ed before).
cause - here used prim arily to show the “ re su lt” o f th e action, circu m stan tials - these are typical, b u t n o t necessary featu res o f the action; com ing back to an exam ple used before, “ h e a t” m ig h t be placed am o n g circum stan tials fo r melt.
sp ea k er’s ev alu atio n - native speakers m ay assess a verb as negative (e.g. spoil), n eu tra l (e.g. gel), o r positive (e.g. shine, o f th e sun)
C O N C E P T U A L E X T E N S IO N S - this elem ent lists sem em es th a t are n o t pro to ty p ically “ n a tu ra l p h en o m en a” verbs (e.g. describe changes caused by h u m an intervention), bu t ca n n o t be totally m issed o u t because o f close re latio n sh ip to the subject. T hey are labelled H E A D W O R D ', H E A D W O R D ", etc.
4. SEM A N TIC ANALYSIS - A PPLIC A T IO N
In previous sections o f the article we have determ ined how to select, classify an d describe verbs expressing n a tu ra l pheno m en a. N o w th e tim e is ripe fo r exem plification. T his p a rt o f the p a p e r specifies w hich verbs from the E nglish lexicon m eet the criteria en um erated ab ov e and th erefo re h ave been selected as verbs expressing n atu ra l phen o m en a, w hich verbs from th e w hole d o m ain are placed in w hich (sub)group, an d how to describe th e sem antic p ro p erties o f each verb w ith the help o f th e co nceptu al analysis system presented before.
V erbs referring to th e tem p eratu re o f the air: C O O L (1) - T H E M E : air
- cause: result: low (er) air tem p eratu re - sp eak er’s evaluation: varying?
F R E E Z E (1) - T H E M E : expletive it referring to general situ a tio n - presup p o sitio n : air tem p eratu re above 0 deg. С - cause: result: air tem p eratu re below 0 deg. С - circum stantials: snow , iced street w ater - sp ea k er’s evaluation: varying?
V erbs connected B E A M B E A T D O W N -C L I M B E C L I P S E R I S E S E T
presupposition: air tem p eratu re below 0 deg. С cause: result: air tem p eratu re abo v e 0 deg. C; snow an d ice m elting
sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
w ith th e sun: T H E M E : sun m an n er: intensely
cause: result: (very) high air tem p eratu re; lightness sp eak er’s evaluation: positive
C O N C . E X T .: B E A M ' - smile so cheerfully th a t one resem bles the shining sun
T H E M E : sun
m an n er: very intensely
cause: result: very high air tem p eratu re sp eak er’s evaluation: varying?
T H E M E : sun location: in the sky
presupp osition: sun low er th a n th e zenith m an n er: slowly
time: w hen rising
cause: result: sun higher in the sky sp eak er’s evaluation: neutral
T H E M E : sun
source: th e m o o n re m a in in g betw een th e sun an d the E a rth
location: in th e sky
conditions: specific, astrono m ical cause: result: com plete d arkn ess sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
C O N C . E X T .: E C L IP S E ' - (o f people) ou tsh in e, m ak e sb. a p p e a r dull by com p ariso n
T H E M E : sun
location: in the sky; in th e east p resupposition : sun below th e h o rizo n m an n er: slowly
cause: result: sun above th e h o rizo n ; d ay sta rts sp ea k er’s evaluation: neutral/p o sitiv e
T H E M E : sun
location: in th e sky; in th e w est presup p o sitio n : sun above the h o rizo n m an n er: slowly
- cause: result: sun below th e horizo n; n ig h t sta rts - sp eak er’s evaluation: neu tral/n eg ativ e
S H I N E (1) - T H E M E : sun
- cause: result: lightness - sp eak er’s evaluation: positive
V erbs referring to precipitation:
C O M E D O W N - T H E M E : rain, snow, etc.
- location: from the sky dow n to th e g ro u n d - conditions: specific, atm ospherical
- sp eak er’s evaluation: varying/negative? D R I P - T H E M E : rain
- location: from above (e.g. th e sky) d ow n to th e gro u n d - conditions: specific, atm ospherical
- m anner: lightly, irregularly - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
D R I Z Z L E - T H E M E : expletive it referring to rain - location: from the sky dow n to the g ro u n d - conditions: specific, atm osp herical
- m an n er: in fine d ro p s
- circum stantials: d ro p s usu. very n um ero u s - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
F A L L - T H E M E : rain , snow, etc.
- location: from the sky dow n to th e g ro u n d - conditions: specific, atm osp herical
- sp eak er’s evaluation: varying/negative?
H A I L - T H E M E : expletive it referring to hail, frozen ra in - location: from the sky dow n to th e gro u n d - conditions: specific, atm osph erical
- m anner: in a show er
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative L A S H - T H E M E : rain
- location: from the sky dow n to (sth. close to) the ground - conditions: specific, atm ospherical
- m anner: w ith great force, as if w ith a w hip - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- C O N C . EX T.: L A S H ' - strike w ith o r as if w ith a w hip M I Z Z L E - T H E M E : expletive it referring to rain
- location: from the sky dow n to th e g ro u n d - conditions: specific, atm ospherical
- m an n er: in fine, m istlike drop lets - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
P E L T P O U R P R E C IP I T A T E R A I N S H O W E R S L E E T S N O W S P A T T E R
- T H E M E : rain , snow, etc.; expletive it referrin g to ra in , snow , etc.
- location: from the sky dow n to the gro u n d - conditions: specific, atm o sph erical
- m an n er: very heavily
- sp ea k er’s evaluation: negative
- T H E M E : rain; expletive it referrin g to ra in - location: from the sky dow n to the gro u n d - conditions: specific, atm osp herical
- m an n er: heavily
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: P O U R ' — (o f liquid) flow - T H E M E : clouds
- source: co n d en satio n - location: in the sky
- cause: result: rain , snow , etc. - sp eak er’s evaluation: varying?
- T H E M E : expletive it referring to rain - location: from the sky dow n to th e g ro un d - conditions: specific, atm ospherical
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: R A IN ' - (fig.) fall like ra in o n sth. - T H E M E : rain, snow , etc.
- location: from the sky dow n to th e g ro u n d - conditions: specific, atm ospherical
- m an n er: briefly, but intensely
- sp eak er’s evaluation: varying?/negative
- C O N C . E X T .: S H O W E R ' - (o f sm all objects, stones, etc.) fall in a show er
- T H E M E : expletive it referring to snow o r hail m ixed w ith rain
- location: from the sky dow n to th e gro u n d - conditions: specific, atm ospherical
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- T H E M E : expletive it referring to snow , frozen v a p o u r - location: from the sky d ow n to the gro u n d
- conditions: specific, atm ospherical - sp eak er’s evaluation: varying?/positive - T H E M E : (usu.) rain
- location: from th e sky dow n to (som ething close to ) the ground
- m an n er: in num ero u s d ro ps
- sp eak er’s evaluation: n eutral/n eg ativ e
- C O N C . E X T .: S P A T T E R ' - (o f bullets, an y sm all objects) fall
S P I T - T H E M E : expletive it referring to rain - location: from the sky dow n to the gro u n d - conditions: specific, atm osph erical
- m an n er: lightly
- sp eak er’s evaluation: neu tral/n eg ativ e
- C O N C . E X T .: S PIT ' - send saliva from th e m o u th ( S P O T - cf. S P IT , excl. C O N C . E X T .; inform al)
S T O R M (1) - T H E M E : expletive it referring to ra in , snow , etc. - location: from the sky dow n to th e g ro u n d - conditions: specific, atm osph erical
- m an n er: very intensely
- circum stantials: possible casualties - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
T E E M - T H E M E : rain/expletive it referring to rain - location: from the sky dow n to th e g ro u n d - conditions: specific, atm ospherical
- m anner: intensely
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
V erbs referring to wind: B L O W
B L U S T E R
G U S T
- T H E M E : w ind, m ovin g air/expletive it referring to wind - source: chan ging air pressure
- circum stantials: illusion o f low er air tem p eratu re - sp eak er’s evaluation: varying?
- C O N C . E X T .: B L O W ' - (o f people) send air from the m o u th
- T H E M E : wind
- source: changin g air pressure - m an n er: fiercely
- circum stantials: illusion o f radically low er air tem p eratu re - sp ea k er’s evaluation: negative
- T H E M E : wind
- source: changing air pressure - m anner: suddenly an d violently
- circum stantials: illusion o f radically low er air tem p eratu re - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- T H E M E : expletive it referring to wind - source: chan g in g air pressure
- m an n er: forcefully
- circum stantials: illusion o f radically low er air te m p e ra ture; possible casualties
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
V erbs referring to atm o sp h eric phenom ena:
L I G H T E N (1) - T H E M E : expletive it referring to flashes o f ligh tnin g - source: n atu ra l electricity
- location: betw een clouds/fro m clouds to the gro u n d - m an n er: briefly, spectacularly
- time: d u rin g storm ; ju s t before th u n d e r - sp eak er’s evaluation: varying?/negative
- C O N C . E X T .: L IG H T E N (1)' - m a k e o r becom e brighter
T H U N D E R - T H E M E : expletive it referring to th u n d e r, lo ud noise - m an n er: loudly; briefly
- time: d u rin g storm ; ju s t after lightning - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: T H U N D E R ' - sou nd loudly
V erbs referring to cloudiness, visibility an d brightness: B R IG H T E N
C L E A R
C L E A R UP
C L O U D O V E R
- T H E M E : sky, w eather, etc. - source: low er cloudiness - presup position: cloudiness
- cause: result: higher visibility an d lightness - sp eak er’s evaluation: positive
- C O N C . EXT.: B R IG H T E N ' - cause to become bright(er) B R IG H T E N " - (cause to) becom e happy(ier) - T H E M E : sky, w eather, etc. (expletive it)
- p resupposition : cloudiness
- cause: result: no clouds n o r rain - sp eak er’s evaluation: positive
- C O N C . E X T .: C L E A R ' - becom e tra n sp a re n t - T H E M E : expletive it referring to general situ atio n - p resup position: cloudiness
- cause: result: fine w eather - sp eak er’s evaluation: positive - T H E M E : sky
- p resupposition: n o clouds - cause: result: cloudiness - circum stantials: d ark ness - sp ea k er’s evaluation: negative
D A R K E N - T H E M E : sky
- cause: result: d ark ness
- circum stantials: usu. caused by storm - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: D A R K E N ' - becom e d ark
D A W N - T H E M E : expletive it referring to general situ a tio n /d a y - presupposition: darkness; night
- m an n er: slowly
- tim e: ju st after sunrise - cause: result: lightness
- sp eak er’s evaluation: positive?
D U S K - T H E M E : expletive it referring to general situ atio n /d a y - presupposition: lightness; day
- m an n er: slowly - time: after sunset - cause: result: darkness
- sp eak er’s ev aluation: negative?
L IG H T E N (2) - T H E M E : expletive it referring to general situ atio n - cause: result: b etter visibility
- speaker’s ev aluation: positive
- C O N C . E X T .: L IG H T E N (2)' - cf. L IG H T E N (1)' L O U R ( L O W E R ) - T H E M E : sky, clouds
- cause: result: darkness
- circum stantials: usu. th reaten in g a storm - sp eak er’s ev aluation: negative
O V E R C L O U D - cf. C L O U D O V E R
V erbs connected w ith low o r decreasing tem p eratu re: C H IL L - presupposition: being h o t/w arm /tep id
- cause: result: low (er) tem p eratu re - sp eak er’s evaluatio n: n eutral
- C O N C . E X T .: C H IL L ' - m ak e cool/cold C O O L (2) - presupposition: being h o t/w arm /tep id
- cause: result: low tem p eratu re
- circum stantials: som etim es presup.: being co ld , result: being yet colder
- C O N C . EX T.: C O O L (2)' - m ak e cold(er) F R E E Z E (2) - presupposition: tem p, above 0 deg. С
- cause: result: change from liquid to solid; tem p, below 0 deg. С
- sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- cause: result: change from liquid to solid; tem p, below 0 deg. С
- circum stantials: alm ost alw ays co ncern ing w ater, n o t any o th er liquid
- sp ea k er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: IC E ' - m ak e very cold
V erbs connected w ith high or increasing tem peratu re: B O IL D E F R O S T D R Y H E A T P A R C H - T H E M E : liquid, w ater - source: fire
- location: in co n tain er (kettle, p o t) - time: d u rin g intense heating
- cause: result: liq u id ’s tem p eratu re app . 100 deg. C; v ap o u r
- circum stantials: steam ing, b ubbling - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eutral
- C O N C . E X T .: B O IL ' - cause to change to v ap o u r; (fig.) T H E M E ': co n tain er o r objects flo atin g in liquid (p o tato es, etc.)
- T H E M E : food
- source: air tem p eratu re - p resupp osition: being frozen - m an n er: slowly
- cause: result: being n o longer frozen; softening - sp eak er’s evaluation: positive?
- C O N C . E X T .: D E F R O S T ' - cause to becom e unfrozen D E F R O S T " - rem ove ice o r fro st from sth.
- source: air tem p eratu re; h eat - presupposition: being wet - m anner: slowly
- cause: result: losing m oistu re th u s becom ing w arm er - sp ea k er’s ev aluation: positive?
- C O N C . E X T .: D R Y ' - m ak e dry - source: heat, hotness
- cause: result: becom ing h o t o r w arm - sp ea k er’s evaluation: positive?
- C O N C . E X T .: H E A T ' - m ak e h o t o r w arm - source: high tem p eratu re
- cause: result: losing alm ost all m o istu re th u s becom ing w arm er an d very dry
- circum stantials: b roken surface - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
S I M M E R T H A W (2) W A R M U N F R E E Z E - C O N C . EX T.: P A R C H ' - m a k e very d ry - T H E M E : liquid, w ater - source: fire
- location: in co n tain e r (kettle, p o t) - time: d u rin g intense heating
- cause: result: liquid rem aining alm o st a t boiling p o in t (close to 100 deg. C)
- sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: S IM M E R ' - cause to rem ain alm o st at boiling p o in t
S IM M E R " - be filled w ith u n co n tro llab le em o tio n - T H E M E : foo d, o th e r substances
- source: air tem p eratu re - presupposition: being frozen - m an n er: slowly
- cause: result: passing in to liquid o r u n fro zen state - sp ea k er’s evaluation: neutral?
- C O N C . EX T.: T H A W (2)' - cause to pass into unfrozen state
- source: air tem p eratu re, fire, h eat - cause: result: high(er) tem p eratu re - sp eak er’s evaluation: positive - cf. D E F R O S T , except D E F R O S T "
V erbs connected w ith burning:
B E L C H - T H E M E : a b u rn in g object - source: fire
- time: d u rin g b urn in g
- cause: result: sending o u t sm oke - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral B L A Z E (1) - T H E M E : fire, flam m able objects
- source: ignition - conditions: dryness - m anner: brightly, fiercely
- cause: result: fuel o r b u rn in g object d am ag ed o r d e stroyed
- circum stantials: sm oke, intense light - sp eak er’s evaluatio n: varying
B U R N - T H E M E , source, co ndition s, cause as in B L A Z E (1) - circum stantials: sm oke, light
- sp ea k er’s evaluatio n: varying?/negative
C H A R F L A M E F L A R E R E E K S M O K E S M O U L D E R B U R N " - m ak e a m a rk by b urn in g B U R N '" - use as fuel B U R N "" - be killed by fire B U R N '"" - be able to catch fire - T H E M E : flam m able objects
- source, conditio ns as in B L A Z E (1) - cause: result: T H E M E black
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative?
- C O N C . E X T .: C H A R ' - reduce to ch arco al by b u rn in g - T H E M E , source, condition s, cause as in B L A Z E (1) - m an n er: w ith a b righter flam e
- circum stantials: sm oke, light
- sp eak er’s evaluation: varying?/positive
- T H E M E , source, conditions, cause as in B L A Z E (1) - m an n er: brightly, briefly, unsteadily
- circum stantials: dim light; sm oke - sp eak er’s evaluatio n: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: F L A R E ' - b u rst in to anger - T H E M E : a bu rn in g object, fire, chim ney - source: fire
- time: d u rin g burning
- cause: result: sending o u t th ick sm oke - speaker’s evaluation: negative?
- T H E M E : a burn in g object - source: fire
- tim e: d u rin g burning
- cause: result: sending ou t sm oke o r o th er visible v a p o u r - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: S M O K E ' - d ra w in sm oke from e.g. cigarettes
- T H E M E : flam m able objects
- source, conditions, cause as in B L A Z E (1) - m anner: slowly, w ith o u t flam e
- circum stantials: T H E M E usually in capab le o f b u rn in g fiercely w ith flam e (e.g. cigarettes)
- sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: S M O U L D E R ' - (o f em otions) be hidden an d n o t expressed
V erbs co nnected w ith the light:
B L A Z E (2) - T H E M E : light, sun, etc.
F L A S H F L IC K E R F L U O R E S C E G L A R E G L E A M G L IM M E R G L I N T - m an n er: brightly - cause: result: lightness - circum stantials: heat
- sp eak er’s evaluation: varying?
- T H E M E : light, lightning, lighthouse, etc.; also an y th in g reflecting light (e.g. eyes)
- source, cause as in B L A Z E (2) - m an n er: briefly, suddenly - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: F L A S H ' - cause to shine brightly F L A S H " - com m unicate w ith a light
F L A S H '" - send o r reflect sth. like a flash - T H E M E : light
- source: n atu ra l ra d ia tio n
- m anner: unsteadily, going on an d o ff - cause: tem p o ra ry lightness
- sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- T H E M E : fluorescent substances; ones th a t have specific p roperties m ak in g the process possible
- source: light, ra d ia tio n
- cause: result: em itting light th a t is a reflection o f (source) - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eutral
- T H E M E : light, sun, etc.
- source: n a tu ra l o r artificial ra d ia tio n - m an n er: very intensely
- cause: result: intense light - circum stantials: dazzling - sp ea k er’s evaluation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: G L A R E ' - stare angrily - T H E M E : an ything reflecting light (e.g. eyes) - source, cause as in B L A Z E (2)
- m an n er: softly, brightly - sp ea k er’s evaluation: positive
- C O N C . E X T .: G L E A M ' - (o f face o r eyes) show em otions
- T H E M E : light
- source, cause as in B L A Z E (2) - m an n er: faintly, unsteadily - sp ea k er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- T H E M E : anyth in g reflecting light (e.g. d iam o n d s) - source, cause as in B L A Z E (2)
G L IS T E N G L IT T E R S H I M M E R S H I N E (2) S P A R K L E V erbs connected B U C K L E B E N D C O N T O R T C O N T R A C T
sp ea k er’s evaluation : n eu tra l
C O N C . E X T .: G L IN T ' - (o f eyes) sp ark le an d show em otions
T H E M E : esp. wet, oily o r polished surfaces source, cause as in B L A Z E (2)
m an n er: brightly
sp eak er’s evaluatio n: n eutral/p o sitiv e
T H E M E : ?sun, stars, an y th in g reflecting light source, cause as in B L A Z E (2)
m an n er: brightly, w ith little, sh arp flashes sp eak er’s evaluation : neu tral/p ositiv e?
T H E M E : an ything reflecting light; m o o n lig h t, etc. source, cause as in B L A Z E (2)
m an n er: softly
circum stantials: light seems to w aver sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
T H E M E : an ything reflecting light source, cause as in B L A Z E (2) sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
C O N C . E X T .: S H IN E (2)' - aim light in a specified d irection
here cf. G L IT T E R
w ith changing shape:
T H E M E : sth. strong, h a rd , usu. m a d e o f m etal source: pressure, h eat
cause: result: T H E M E bends in m iddle speaker’s evaluation: n eu tral
C O N C . E X T .: B U C K L E ' - cause to bend T H E M E : an ything straig h t
source: pressure, heat
cause: result: T H E M E becomes crooked, curved, an g u lar sp eak er’s evaluation : n eu tral
C O N C . E X T .: B E N D ' - force sth. in to an angle T H E M E : body p a rts, b ranches, etc.
p resupposition: having n a tu ra l, n o rm al shape conditions: pathological, a b n o rm a l
cause: result: loss o f n atu ra l shape sp eak er’s evaluation: negative T H E M E : e.g. m etal
cause: result: T H E M E becom es sh o rte r o r sm aller circum stantials: usu. because o f h e a t
G N A R L S H R I V E L S H R I N K S W E L L T W I S T W A R P
- sp eak er’s ev aluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: C O N T R A C T ' - cause to becom e sm aller - T H E M E : trees, branches, etc.
- presu p p o sitio n , co n d itio n s as in C O N T O R T - cause: result: becom e ro u g h , covered w ith k n o b s - sp eak er’s evaluation : negative
- T H E M E : leaves, m aterials like leather, etc. - source: heat, cold o r dryness
- cause: result: T H E M E becom es sm aller an d w rinkled - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: S H R IV E L ' - cause to becom e sm aller... - T H E M E : p ro d u c ts o f n atu re ; clo th, etc.
- cause: result: T H E M E becom es sm aller
- circum stantials: usu. because o f m o istu re, h e a t o r cold - sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: S H R IN K ' - cause to becom e sm aller - T H E M E : w ood, body p a rts
- source: pressure (from inside)
- cause: result: T H E M E becom es larger
- circum stantials: if T H E M E is a b o d y p a rt, th en c o n ditio n s are pathological; usu. result: pain
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative
- T H E M E : e.g. m etal, body p a rts, etc. - source: pressure
- cause: result: loss o f n atu ra l shape - sp eak er’s evalu ation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: T W IS T ' - cause to becom e o u t o f shap e - T H E M E : w ood o r sim ilar m ateria l (e.g. p ap e r) - source: uneven shrinkage, ex pansion, m o istu re - cause: result: loss o f usual o r n a tu ra l sh ape
- circum stantials: usu. result: T H E M E can no lo n g er be used fo r its p ro to ty p ical p u rp o se
- sp ea k er’s evaluation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: W A R P ' - cause to chang e shape W A R P " - (cause to ) becom e biased o r p erverted (fig.)
N O T E : n um ero u s lexemes w hich m ight belong to this su b g ro u p (e.g. deform , distort, dwindle, misshape) have been excluded because th ey are alm o st exclusively used as transitive verbs w ith m a n as agent (cause sth. to change shape) o r are no longer used as verbs a t all, being ju s t th e basis fo r fo rm in g co rresp o n d in g adjectives (e.g. misshapen)
V erbs involving a change in state:
C A K E - T H E M E 1: thick liquid o r sem i-solid* - T H E M E 2: h ard , d ry m ass, lum p** - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: C A K E ' - cover sth. thickly (o f e.g. m u d ) C A L C I F Y - T H E M E 1: body p a rts (tissue, veins)
- T H E M E 2: h ard , stony substance - source: calcium o r lime salts - location: h u m an o r anim al bo dy - conditions: pathological
- sp eak er’s evaluation : neg ativ e/n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: C A L C IF Y ' - cause to stiffen C L O T - T H E M E 1: th ick liquid (bloo d, cream )
- T H E M E 2: clot, lum p
- source: chem ical o r physical reactio n - conditions: presence o f oxygen - sp eak er’s evaluatio n: n eutral
- C O N C . E X T .: C L O T ' - cause to form clots C O A G U L A T E - T H E M E 1: th ick liquid (bloo d, p ain t)
- T H E M E 2: thick soft sem i-solid m ass - source, cond itions as in C L O T - sp eak er’s ev aluation: n eutral
- C O N C . E X T .: C O A G U L A T E ' - cause to co a g u late C O N D E N S E I - T H E M E 1: liquid
- T H E M E 2: thick liquid - m an n er: slowly
- circum stantials: usu. d u rin g heatin g - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: C O N D E N S E 1' - cause to becom e thick C O N D E N S E 2 - T H E M E 1: gas, steam
- T H E M E 2: liquid, usu. w ater
- circum stantials: usu. because o f cooling - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: C O N D E N S E 2' - cause to becom e liquid C O N G E A L - T H E M E 1: liquid (bloo d, fat, soup)
- T H E M E 2: very thick sem i-solid sub stance
- circ u m sta n tials: usu. because o f coo ling ; reversib le w hen tem p eratu re rises again
* - object.
** - product. The introduction o f tw o T H E M E s stretches som ehow the definition o f this notion given before; however, it is deliberate, as in the case o f this particular subgroup it facilitates analysing the semantic properties o f the lexemes.
C O N S O L ID A T E C R Y S T A L L I Z E D E L IQ U E S C E D IS S O L V E E N C R U S T E V A P O R A T E F O S S I L I Z E
sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tra l
C O N C . E X T .: C O N G E A L ' - cause to becom e th ick T H E M E 1: thick liquid (m ud)
T H E M E 2: solid
sp eak er’s ev aluation: n eu tra l
C O N C . E X T .: C O N S O L ID A T E ' - cause to co n so lid ate C O N S O L ID A T E " - (o f e.g. co m p an y ) becom e m o re solid o r strong er
T H E M E 1: liquid T H E M E 2: solid
m anner: by form ing crystals sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
C O N C . E X T .: C R Y S T A L L IZ E ' - cause to form in to crystals
C R Y S T A L L IZ E " - (o f ideas) becom e definite T H E M E 1: solid, usu. chem ical su b stan ce like salts T H E M E 2: liquid
source: m o istu re from air conditions: specific, chem ical sp eak er’s evalu ation: n eu tral T H E M E 1: solid (sugar, salt) T H E M E 2: solid m ixed w ith liquid location: in liquid
presupposition: solid being soluble
circum stantials: usu. d u rin g h eatin g o r stirring sp eak er’s evaluation: n eutral
C O N C . E X T .: D IS S O L V E ' - cause to becom e liquid D IS S O L V E " - (o f hopes) d isap p ea r
- T H E M E 1 : th ick liquid, soft solid - T H E M E 2: h ard solid, cru st - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: E N C R U S T ' - cover w ith a cru st - T H E M E 1: liquid, usu. w ater
- T H E M E 2: v a p o u r o r gas
- circum stantials: usu. th ro u g h h eatin g - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eutral
- C O N C . EXT.: E V A P O R A T E ' - cause to becom e vap ou r E V A P O R A T E " - (o f hopes) be lost
- T H E M E 1: solid (anim al or p la n t rem ains) - T H E M E 2: fossil, very h ard solid
- conditions: specific, biological - m an n er: slowly
G E L G E L A T IN A T E G E L A T I N I Z E H A R D E N I N C R A S S A T E I N D U R A T E I N S P I S S A T E J E L L J E L L I F Y J E L L Y L IQ U E F Y 1
- sp eak er’s evaluation : n eu tra l
- C O N C . E X T .: F O S S IL IZ E ' - cause to becom e fossil F O S S IL IZ E " - (o f attitu d e s) m ak e o r becom e o u t o f d ate
- T H E M E 1: liquid - T H E M E 2: gel, jelly
- p resupposition: liquid co n tain in g chem ical c o m p o n en t m ak in g process possible
- m anner: slowly
- circum stantials: usu. d u rin g cooling - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tra l
- C O N C . E X T .: G E L ' - (o f ideas) tak e defin ite form - T H E M E 1: liquid
- T H E M E 2: gelatine, jelly
- presu p p o sitio n , m an n er as in G E L - circum stantials: usu. d u rin g heatin g - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: G E L A T IN A T E ' - co n v ert in to o r c o a t w ith T H E M E 2
- cf. G E L A T IN A T E - T H E M E 1: (thick) liquid - T H E M E 2: solid
- sp eak er’s ev aluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: H A R D E N ' - cause to becom e h ard H A R D E N " - (o f attitu d e s) m ak e o r becom e less sen sitive
- T H E M E 1: liquid (usu. chem ical substance) - T H E M E 2: thick liquid
- source: p artic u la r chem ical reaction s - conditions: specific, chem ical
- sp ea k er’s ev aluation: n eu tral - T H E M E 1: th ick liquid - T H E M E 2: solid
- sp eak er’s ev aluation: n eu tral - cf. I N C R A S S A T E
- cf. G E L , exc. n o circu m stantials - cf. J E L L
- cf. J E L L
- T H E M E 1: solid - T H E M E 2: liquid - m an n er: ra th e r slowly
L I Q U E F Y 2 M E L T 1 M E L T 2 O S S I F Y P E T R I F Y S E T S O F T E N
- sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: L IQ U E F Y Г - cause to becom e liquid - T H E M E 1: gas
- T H E M E 2: liquid
- source: p artic u la r chem ical reactions - conditions: specific, chem ical
- sp eak er’s evaluatio n: n eutral
- C O N C . E X T .: L IQ U E F Y 2' - cause to becom e liquid - T H E M E 1: solid
- T H E M E 2: liquid
- circum stantials: usu. d u rin g heating - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: M E L T 1' - cause to becom e liquid M E L T 1" - (o f feelings) soften
- T H E M E 1: solid (sugar, salt) - T H E M E 2: solid m ixed w ith liquid - location: in liquid
- presuppo sitio n: solid being soluble
- circum stantials: usu. d u rin g heatin g o r stirring - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: M E L T 2' - cause to becom e p a r t o f liquid
M E L T 2" - (o f food) becom e soft - T H E M E 1: solid
- T H E M E 2: bone
- source: p artic u la r biological/chem ical processes - conditions: specific, biological/chem ical
- m anner: slowly
- sp eak er’s ev aluation: negativ e/neutral
- C O N C . E X T .: O S S IF Y ' - (o f beliefs) becom e rigid - T H E M E 1: solid (specim ens o f fa u n a/flo ra)
- T H E M E 2: sto ne (-like substance)
- source, conditions, m an n er, sp ea k er’s ev a lu a tio n as in O S S I F Y
- C O N C . E X T .: P E T R IF Y ' - becom e u n ab le to m ove - T H E M E 1: liquid (glue, cem ent, etc.)
- T H E M E 2: hard solid
- source: chem ical/physical reaction s
- presupposition: liquid co n tain in g co m p o u n d s m a k in g process possible
- sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral - T H E M E 1: solid
S O L ID I F Y
T H IC K E N
V A P O R I Z E
V O L A T I L I Z E
- T H E M E 2: soft solid (rarely); thick liquid - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: S O F T E N ' - cause to becom e soft - T H E M E 1: liquid
- T H E M E 2: solid
- sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . EXT.: S O L ID IF Y ' - (o f objections) becom e firm - T H E M E 1: liquid
- T H E M E 2: th ick liquid - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eutral
- C O N C . EX T.: T H IC K E N ' - cause to becom e thick - T H E M E 1: liquid
- T H E M E 2: v ap o u r o r gas
- circum stantials: usu. th ro u g h heating - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- T H E M E 1: liquid
- T H E M E 2: v a p o u r o r gas
- circum stantials: T H E M E 2 often d isap p earin g - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
V erbs connected w ith th e beginning o r flou rish in g o f life: B L O O M B L O S S O M B R E E D B U D F L O W E R F R U I T - T H E M E : plants - conditions: spring tim e - cause: result: flowers
- sp eak er’s evaluation : positive - C O N C . E X T .: B L O O M ' - flourish - cf. B L O O M
- T H E M E : anim als - source: im pregnation
- cause: result: young anim als - sp eak er’s evaluation; positive - C O N C . E X T .: B R E E D ' - educate - T H E M E : trees
- conditions: spring tim e
- cause: result: buds from w hich flow ers develop - sp eak er’s evaluation: positive
- cf. B L O O M - T H E M E : trees
- time: after e.g. budding - cause: result: fruit
G R O W H A T C H R IP E N S H O O T S P R O U T V E G E T A T E - T H E M E : plants, trees - cause: result: m atu rity - sp eak er’s evaluation: positive - T H E M E : young bird, fish - p resupposition: being u n b o rn
- cause: result: em erging from an egg - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral/p o sitiv e - C O N C . E X T .: H A T C H ' - cause to hatch - T H E M E : plan ts, fruit
- cause: result: being ready fo r use - circum stantials: usu. d u e to sunshine - sp eak er’s evaluation: positive
- T H E M E : plan ts, bushes - cause: result: new branches - sp ea k er’s evaluation: positive - T H E M E : plan ts, bushes
- cause: result: new branches, leaves, buds - sp eak er’s evalu ation: varying?
- T H E M E : plan ts, rarely anim als - cause: result: living, being n o t dead - sp eak er’s evaluation: n eu tral
- C O N C . E X T .: V E G E T A T E ' - live a dull life
V erbs connected w ith the end o r decline o f life: D IE - T H E M E : living organism s
- source: factors term in atin g living - cause: result: d eath
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative W IT H E R - T H E M E : plants
- source: loss o f substances essential fo r living, e.g. w ater - cause: result: d eath
- circum stantials: dryness, shrivelling - sp ea k er’s evaluation: negative
V erbs connected w ith the process o f spoiling: A D D L E - T H E M E : egg
- conditions: pathological - cause: result: ro tten in g
- sp ea k er’s evaluation: negative C U R D L E - T H E M E : m ilk
D E C A Y
D E C O M P O S E P U T R E F Y R O T
S P O I L
- cause: result: curds, thickening - sp ea k er’s evaluatio n: varying?
- C O N C . E X T .: C U R D L E ' - cause to curdle - T H E M E : living organism s o r th eir p a rts - conditio ns: pathological
- cause: result: ro tten in g - sp ea k er’s evaluatio n: negative - cf. D E C A Y
- cf. D E C A Y
- T H E M E : living organism s o r their p a rts - source: bacteria, fungi
- conditions: n atu ra l - cause: result: decaying
- sp eak er’s evaluation: negative - C O N C . E X T .: R O T ' - cause to ro t - T H E M E : food
- source: bacteria, heat, air
- cause: result: T H E M E n o lo ng er edible - sp ea k er’s ev aluation: negative
- C O N C . E X T .: S P O IL ' - m a k e o r becom e b ad
5. CONCLUSIONS
H ere I wish to re m a rk th a t all the lexicographic d a ta p resented in this p a p e r h ave been collected by m e chiefly d u rin g n u m ero u s co n su ltatio n s w ith n ativ e speakers o f English. I m ay have been m isled by them here a n d there, b u t if this p ap e r co n tain s any inconsistencies o r erro rs they rem ain entirely m y fault.
REFERENCES
H o r n b y , A. S. (ed.) (1989) O xford Advanced Learner's Dictionary o f Current English, O xford: Oxford University Press.
L e w a n d o w s k a - T o m a s z c z y k , B. (1993) “ Bilingual T hesaurus (BiT), Field theory, and cognitive linguistics” . In Studies in Lexical Field Theory. Tubingen: Niemeyer.
Ł u k a sz B ogucki
C ZA SO W N IK I O PISU JĄ C E ZJA W ISK A N A T U R A L N E
A rtykuł dotyczy pewnych szczególnych właściwości semantycznych charakteryzujących jednolitą grupę słów angielskich, określanych tu ja k o czasowniki opisujące zjawiska naturalne. Zaw iera on ogólne kryteria w yboru tychże czasow ników , jednocześnie definiując pojęcie zjaw iska natu raln eg o , listę czasow ników angielskich w ybranych wg podanych kryteriów i uporządkow anych wg grup i podgrup, oraz analizę sem antyczną każdego czasownika.
