Marek Smoluk
The Favourites of James I and their
impact on the King’s home and
foreign policy
Lublin Studies in Modern Languages and Literature 32, 314-326
LITERATURE 32, 2008, h t t p://w w w.l s m l l.u m c s.l u b l i n.p l
Marek Smoluk
University of Zielona Góra,
Zielona Góra, Poland
The Favourites of James I and their impact
on the King’s home and foreign policy
T h e p an th e o n o f B ritish q u e e n s an d k in g s ra n g e s fro m g lo rio u s m o n a rch s, w h o w e re th e b u ild e rs o f th e B ritish E m p ire to h e lp le ss ru le rs u n d e r w h o se re ig n E n g la n d lost its v a st lan d p o sse ssio n s a n d m u c h o f its p re stig e . S im ilarly , B ritish h isto ry e n c o m p a sse s su ch so v e re ig n s as H e n ry I (1100-1135) w h o w a s an a d v o c a te o f ju s tic e as w e ll as cru el ty ra n ts the like o f W illia m R u fu s (1 0 8 7 -1 1 0 0 ). E x a m p le s o f e x trem e s a b o u n d in a ll a sp e c ts o f m o n a rc h ic a l life, n o t to fo rg et the p ro c liv ity o f th e B ritish ro y a lty to in d u lg e in a b ro a d ra n g e o f sex u al ac tiv ities.
F ro m th e N o rm a n c o n q u e s t to th e p resen t day, th e re h av e b e e n a sig n ific a n t n u m b e r o f h e te ro se x u a l k in g s w h o fa iled to re m a in fa ith fu l to th e ir w iv e s a n d so u g h t lust a n d /o r c o m p a ssio n o u tsid e th e ir m arital v o w s. A t th e o p p o site p o le o f m a n ’s sex u ality , B ritish h isto ry re co rd s m a n y ru le rs w h o w e re d istin c tly h o m o se x u a l a n d o ften, in sp ite o f b e in g m arried , in d u lg e d th e m se lv e s w ith p artn ers o f the sam e sex. It is in te re stin g to n o te th a t n o n e o f th e B ritish g a y k in g s w e re ev er either d isp o sed o f or a ssa ssin a te d so le ly b e c a u se o f se x u a l p referen ces. T he o n ly case o f m u rd e r w a s in th e in stan c e o f E d w a rd II (1307-1327).
T h is o c c u rred as th e resu lt o f a fatal ch o ic e o f m ale lo v ers w h o m the n o b ility re fu se d to to lerate.
T h e a im o f th is p ap er is to p re se n t J a m e s I (1 6 0 3 -1 6 2 5 )1 fro m the p e rsp ectiv e o f h is s e x u a lity a n d th u s ev alu ate to w h a t ex ten t th is first S tu a rt k in g a llo w e d h is p e rso n a l d esire s to in flu en ce h is m o n a rc h ic a l d uties. A lso , th e in te n tio n o f th is w o rk is to asse ss th e ro le o f h is p artic u la r fa v o u rite s w ith re fe re n ce to th eir im p a c t on th e K in g ’s h o m e an d fo reig n p o lic y w ith in h is tw e n ty -th re e y e a r reign.
A c c o rd in g to m a n y p sy c h o lo g ic a l a sse ssm e n ts, ou r s e x u a lity is d e te rm in e d lo n g b e fo re w e en te r a d u lth o o d . In o rd e r to b e ab le to u n d e rsta n d J a m e s ’s se x u a l p re fe re n ce s an d thus, th e d eg ree to w h ic h he w a s in flu e n c e d b y h is m a le lovers, h is c h ild h o o d e x p e rie n c es m u st be ta k e n in to c o n sid eratio n . E v en a b rie f e x a m in a tio n o f J a m e s ’s c h ild h o o d in d ic a te s th a t a ll p re -c o n d itio n s w e re fu lfilled to d iv e rt his se x u a l in terest to w a rd s p artn e rs o f th e sam e sex. O n th e ad v ic e o f P re sb y te ria n C h u rc h o ffic ia ls th a t th e P rin ce sh o u ld b e b ro u g h t up in th e c o m p a n y o f m en, a ll w o m e n w e re re m o v e d fro m h is su rro u n d in g s2. In a d d itio n , th e b o y w a s ra ise d v irtu a lly w ith o u t a m o th er, w h o h av in g b e e n c h a rg ed w ith h a v in g a n a ffa ir w ith E arl o f B o th w e ll an d fo u n d at th e sa m e tim e re sp o n sib le fo r h e r in v o lv em en t in m u rd e rin g h e r h u sb an d , fa ced a d eath p e n a lty in S c o tlan d . T o av o id this, M a ry Q u e e n o f S c o ts so u g h t refu g e in E n g lan d . W o rse still, ev en h ad h is father, L o rd D arn ley , n o t b e e n k ille d in q u estio n ab le c irc u m stan ces, th e P rin ce w o u ld hav e b e e n u n a b le to fin d h im a m a sc u lin e e x a m p le to fo llo w as D a rn le y h a d the re p u ta tio n o f b ein g fatu o u s, v a in a n d lig h t-m in d e d 3. In v ie w o f h is fa th e r’s d e ath an d the b o y ’s lo n e lin e ss, c o u p led w ith a feelin g o f in -secu rity , it se e m s clear th a t h is e a rly y e a rs led in e v ita b ly to h is te n d e n c y to fan cy m e n an d an o b se ssio n a b o u t h is b ein g a ssa ssin a te d a t th e sam e tim e in the future.
1 James VI of Scotland, a son of Mary Queen of Scots and Lord Darnley, succeeded the English throne as James I.
2 O. Bucholz, N. Key, Early Modern England, 1485-1714: A Narrative History, Malden 2004, p. 208.
U n d o u b te d ly , th ese fac to rs, e v en if th e y did n o t tu rn th e y o u n g P rin c e g a y , c e rta in ly p av e d th e w a y fo r h is o p e n h o m o sex u ality .
A m o n g st th e first o f y o u n g J a m e s ’s m ale lovers, E sm é S tu a rt is p ro m in en t. H a v in g b e e n b ro u g h t up a t the F re n c h court, w h ere h o m o se x u a lity w a s m o re p o p u la r th a n elsew h ere, E sm é S tu art re tu rn e d to S c o tla n d a t the ag e o f th irty -sev en . A lth o u g h he h ad a lre a d y b e e n m a rrie d w ith fo u r ch ild ren , h is p h y sic a l a ttra c tiv e n ess as w e ll a s g o o d m a n n e rs m a d e th irte e n -y e ar-o ld Ja m e s fall in lo v e w ith h im 4. T h e P rin c e ’s in fa tu a tio n b e c am e c o m m o n k n o w le d g e a s “he o fte n em b ra c e d an d k isse d h im [Esm é] in p u b lic p la c e s ”5. In to k e n o f h is love, th e K in g p assed on to h is lo v er v a st lan d s an d w e a lth in c lu d in g A rb ro a th A b b ey , C ro o k to w n a n d R e n frew sh ire . In ad d itio n , Ja m e s h e a p e d h o n o u rs u p o n E sm é S tu a rt e lev atin g h im first to the p o sitio n o f E arl o f L e n n o x a n d s u b se q u e n tly to th e p o sts o f L ord C h a n c e llo r and F irst C h am b erlain . A ll o f th a t w o u ld h av e p assed u n n o tic e d or ev en e v e n tu a lly b e e n to lerated , h a d n o t E sm é S tu a rt been C a th o lic a n d left h is C a th o lic w ife an d c h ild re n in F ran ce. E n g lish P ro te sta n ts as w e ll a s th e S c o ttish c le rg y sa w th e K in g ’s fa v o u rite a s a d ire c t th re a t to th e s ta b ility o f P ro te sta n tism in th e B ritish Isles. U n d er th e se circ u m stan ces, th e S c o ttish P ro te sta n t n o b le s a c te d quickly: h a rd ly h a d E sm é S tu a rt b een cap tu red w h e n he w a s b a n ish e d from S co tlan d .
T h e e x p u lsio n o f J a m e s ’s lo v e r se e m s to h av e cre a te d m ix ed feelin g s. O n th e one h a n d Ja m e s w a s g e n u in e ly so rry to lose his b e lo v e d E sm é 6. O n the o th e r h an d , th e fe llo w ’s d ep artu re tu rn e d o u t to be a b le ssin g fo r Ja m es. T h e K in g ’s o b se rv a tio n s o f th e se e v en ts and h is su b se q u e n t d e lib e ra tio n s led to a co m p le te tra n sfo rm a tio n in his p erso n ality . N ot o n ly d id Ja m e s V I b ec o m e m o re se lf-rig h te o u s and
4 A. Stewart, The Cradle King: A Life o f James VI & I, London 2003, p. 51.
5 Own translation quoted from: Ch. Carlton, Królewskie faworyty w Anglii, Warszawa, Wrocław, Kraków 1995, p. 52.
6 Despite James VI’s devotion to Esmé Stuart, the King had other lovers viz. Francis Stuart or Patrick of Gray. Therefore this imposed upon him break-up with Esmé Stuart was not so devastating.
co n v in c e d o f th e d iv in e rig h t o f k in g 7, b u t also he ca m e to te rm s w ith h is h o m o sex u ality . C learly , th e situ a tio n w ith E sm é S tu a rt’s b a n ish m e n t re su lte d in Ja m e s b e c o m in g m o re sta b le in h is ru le o f S co tlan d . Ch. C arlto n m a k e s an in te re stin g p a ra lle l b e tw e e n J a m e s ’s re ig n p rio r to a n d a fter th e ev en t u n d er d iscu ssio n n o w , a n d claim s th a t in th e p erio d to fo llo w , th e K in g ’s su c c e sse s c o u ld o n ly be co m p a ra b le to th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f R o b e rt th e B ru c e 8.
A s Ja m e s b e c a m e m o re m atu re, th e m o re co n sc io u s h e w a s o f his sac re d d u ty to p ro d u c e an h eir w h o w o u ld co n tin u e th e d y n a sty h e h ad started . A lth o u g h w o m e n w e re still o u tsid e h is sco p e o f se x u a l desires, th e tw e n ty -th re e -y ea r o ld K in g g o t e n g ag ed in co u rtin g A n n o f D en m ark . In 1589 th e y g o t m a rrie d in D en m ark , a n d sh o rtly after, th e y re tu rn e d to S c o tla n d . H av in g se c u re d h is su ccessio n , Ja m e s V I b e g a n to drift a w a y fro m h is w ife. A lth o u g h th e y h a d six m ore ch ild ren , p rio r to th e b irth o f th e last, S o p h ia, in 1606, Ja m e s h ad a lre a d y tu rn e d to h is o ld h a b its a n d fell in love o n ce ag ain ; th is tim e w ith R o b e rt C arr.
T h e K in g m et th is n e w lo v e r at a to u rn a m e n t in 1607. T h e re w a s an im m e d ia te m u tu a l a ttrac tio n , w h ic h re su lte d in a sp rin g b o a rd effect, la u n c h in g C a rr’s ca re e r at court. A lm o st in sta n tly he w a s ele v a te d to k n ig h th o o d , a y e a r la te r h e b e c a m e L o rd R o c h e ste r an d th e fo llo w in g y e a r h e w a s o ffered a se at on th e P riv y C o u n cil. H is final p referm en t w a s th a t o f E arl o f S o m erset. S u c h a c o lle c tio n o f h ig h state offices illu stra te s th e in itia l in te n sity o f J a m e s ’s lo v e o f C arr. In tu rn the K in g ’s p a ra m o u r w ith g re a te r ze a l b e g an to in te rfe re w ith th e m ak in g o f th e K in g ’s fo reig n policy. A s a c o n seq u en ce , J a m e s sta rte d to sh o w p ro -S p a n ish lean in g s. A lre a d y b y 1604 th e K in g h ad b e g u n to d isp la y a sy m p a th e tic a p p ro a c h to w a rd th e S p a n ish court. A tte m p ts to im p ro v e re la tio n s, h o w ev er, w e re d o o m e d to fa ilu re a s lo n g a s th e
7 W. Barlow, The Summe and Substance of the Conference [...] at Hampton Court, London 1604, p. 78-83 [in:] M. Misztal, Outline o f British History, Kraków 1997, p. 142-143.
S p a n ish In q u isitio n p erse c u te d E n g lish m erch a n ts, w h o tra d e d w ith th e p o rts o f b o th S p a in an d P o rtu g al.
O n C a r r ’s su g g estio n , J a m e s I c o n c lu d e d p eace w ith S p a in in 1611. T h is ev en t in itia te d a p e rio d d u rin g w h ic h E n g la n d c o n tin u e d to m a in ta in g o o d re la tio n s w ith S pain. R o b ert C arr can o n ly b e cred ited w ith lay in g th e fo u n d a tio n s fo r the b u ild in g o f d ip lo m a tic lin k s w ith S p ain . H e w a s d islik ed n o t o n ly fo r c o n d u c tin g fo reig n p o lic y b u t also fo r in te rfe rin g w ith in te rn a l policy, su c h as the im p o sitio n o f u n q u e stio n a b le ta x e s9 w ith o u t the ap p ro v a l o f P arliam en t. A ll th e n e w ta x e s a n d im p o sitio n s w e re in tro d u c e d a s th e re su lt o f th e g ro w in g debt, w h ic h in 1608 h a d am o u n te d to £ 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 10 an d the c o n seq u en t c o n sta n t q u e st fo r m o n ey . T o im p ro v e th e C ro w n ’s fin a n c e s Ja m e s, at th e re q u e st o f h is a d v ise r S alisb u ry , in tro d u c e d a G reat C o n tra c t “b y w h ic h P a rlia m en t w o u ld v o te a m o n a rc h a re g u la r in co m e o f £ 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 a y e a r [...] in re tu rn fo r the ab a n d o n m e n t o f its rig h ts o f w a rd sh ip , m a rria g e a n d p u rv e y a n c e ”11. T h e sch em e w a s sh o rt-liv e d an d no so o n e r h ad it c o llap sed th a n sh o rt-te rm in itia tiv e s w e re u se d ju s t to get by.
In J u ly 1610 J a m e s w a s on ce a g a in in d esp e ra te n eed o f m ore m o n ey . T h is tim e he a p p lie d fo r £ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 , h o w e v e r th is w a s tu rn ed dow n. T h is tim e w a s the first o c c a sio n Ja m e s h a d b e e n a c c u se d o f h a v in g e x p e n d e d to o m u ch on h is fav o u rites. S u c h re c rim in a tio n irrita te d R o b ert C a rr so m u c h th a t h e p ersu a d e d th e K in g to d isso lv e P arliam e n t. T h e m o n a rc h th e n p ro c e e d e d to a c t p re c ise ly as C a rr h ad su g g ested , w h ic h sh o w s c le a rly th e d eg ree o f in flu en c e the lover e x e rc ise d o v er Ja m e s I. A s a co n se q u e n c e o f C a r r ’s in terferen ce, no P arlia m e n t w a s su m m o n e d fro m 1610 to 1 6 2 112.
B ein g th e m o n a rc h ’s lover, R o b e rt C a rr w a s n o t a c c u sto m e d to fo re -g o in g h is d e sire s to re a lise h is w h im s, ev en if su ch a c tio n re su lted
9 Anon, The History of Kings and Queens of England and Scotland, Singapore 2002, p. 159.
0 Ch. Daniell, A Traveller’s History o f England, Gloucestershire, 1996, p. 117. 11 J. P. Kenyon, Stuart England, Penguin Books, 1990, p 74.
in th e w id e n in g o f th e g ap b e tw e e n th e c o u rt an d th e e a rld o m 13 an d th u s u ltim a te ly le ad in g to C a r r ’s d o w n fall, w h ic h in d eed it did. T he K in g ’s p a ra m o u r fell in love w ith the L a d y F ra n c e s H ow ard; she w o u ld h av e b e e n a p erfect m atch , h a d n o t the L a d y b e e n w ife to the E a rl o f E ssex . L a d y H o w a rd an d C a rr h a d w o v e n a p lo t to g et rid o f h e r h u sb a n d b y h a v in g the E a rl d rin k a co n co ctio n , w h ic h re su lte d in h is im p o ten ce . O n th e p re te x t th a t the m a rria g e h a d n o t b een c o n su m m a te d d ue to failu re on the h u s b a n d ’s part, L a d y H o w a rd an d C a rr set a b o u t m a k in g a p p lic a tio n effo rts fo r th e an n u lm e n t o f the m arriag e . Ja m e s I w a s w e ll a w are o f th e c o u p le ’s v ic io u s in te n tio n s. It is n o te w o rth y th a t h is su p p o rt an d p ersu a sio n o f the b ish o p s to g ran t p e rm issio n fo r th e d iv o rce m a d e th e p lan feasib le. T h e event illu stra te s e x p lic itly th e ex tre m e le n g th s to w h ic h th e K in g w as p re p a re d to go j u s t to please h is lover.
N o so o n e r h a d C a rr b e e n a b le to m a rry L a d y F ra n c e s H o w a rd le g a lly th a n T h o m a s O v erb u ry , h is w if e ’s ea rlie r ad m irer, th re a te n e d to re v e a l th e d etails c o n c e rn in g th e p o iso n in g o f L a d y F ra n c e s ’ first h u sb a n d 14. T h o m a s O v e rb u ry a n d R o b e rt C a rr w e re n o t fo n d o f each o th e r - to p u t it m ild ly - a n d th is th re a t d eep en ed th e ir m u tu a l dislike. R o b e rt C arr, w h o h ad ju s t b e e n ele v a te d to th e p o sitio n o f th e E a rl o f S o m erset, felt c o n fid e n t e n o u g h th a t he w o u ld b e ab le to ex tricate h im s e lf fro m h is p ro b lem s b y p e rsu a d in g the K in g to h av e T h o m a s O v e rb u ry se n t to F ran ce or b e tte r to R u ssia a s a n a m b a s s a d o r15. T h o m a s O v e rb u ry ’s re je c tio n o f the o ffer led first to h is im p riso n m e n t a n d th e n c e h is death. T h e re is so m e ev id en ce, w h ic h im p lies th at R o b e rt C arr w a s in v o lv ed in m u rd e rin g h is b la c k m a ile r16. T w o y ears la ter R o b e rt C a rr an d h is w ife w e re th e m se lv e s a rrested . T h e y w ere fo u n d g u ilty o f m u rd e rin g O v e rb u ry an d se n te n c e d to cap ital p u n ish m en t. Ja m e s, w h o w a s n o t to see h is ex -lo v e r again, a s h is last
13 Ch. Carlton, op.cit., p. 48. 14 J. P. Kenyon, op.cit., p. 80. 15 A. Stewart, op.cit., p. 261.
favour, co n v e rte d th e death p e n a lty to lifetim e im p riso n m en t. R o b ert C a rr w a s re le a se d afte r se v e n y ears.
L o n g b e fo re C a rr’s d o w n fall, the K in g ’s lu st h a d b e e n d iv erted to w a rd s a m u c h y o u n g e r m an, G eo rg e V illiers. H is in tro d u c tio n to the K in g w a s n o t co in cid en tal. A rc h b ish o p A b b o t, w h o arra n g e d the in tro d u c tio n , h a d a n tic ip a te d th a t he w o u ld be a m p ly re w a rd e d fo r it. S im ilarly , th e Q ueen, w h o h a te d R o b e rt C arr, d e lib e ra te ly h e lp e d y o u n g V illie rs en ter th e circle o f th e ro y al co u rt a s re d re ss to Carr. N o n e th e le ss, n e ith e r th e a rc h b is h o p ’s n o r th e Q u e e n ’s en d eav o u rs w o u ld h a v e m ean t a n y th in g h ad it n o t b ee n fo r G eo rg e V illie rs ’ bea u ty , w h ic h th e K in g fo u n d irresistib le. F ro m th e v e ry first m o m en t th e y m et, J a m e s w a s so fa sc in a te d a n d o v e rw h e lm e d b y h is a p p e a ra n ce th a t he g av e V illie rs a n ic k n a m e “S te e n ie ”17. T h is n ic k n a m e w a s an a b b re v ia tio n o f St S te p h e n w h o se face, ac c o rd in g to th e B ible, w a s re sp le n d e n t o f an a n g e l”18 A c c o rd in g to a c o n te m p o ra ry ac c o u n t, “E v e ry th in g in him w a s so d e lic a te a n d b eau tifu l, esp e c ia lly h is h a n d s an d face see m to b e the m o st fem in in e a n d a ttra c tiv e ”19.
In a d d itio n to h is h a n d so m e a p p e a ra n ce , V illie rs d isp la y e d certain a ttra c tiv e in d iv id u a l q u a litie s: sp a rk lin g c o n v ersatio n , d an cin g , the p la y in g o f c rick et a n d h o rse rid in g , w h ic h th e K in g w o u ld ap p re c ia te in o th ers h ig h ly 20. N o t su rp risin g ly , th e refo re, h is lo o k s c o u p le d w ith th e se o th e r a ttrib u te s m a d e h im a “ta sty m o rs e l” fo r th e K ing. Y et, few co u rtie rs b e lie v e d th a t a n y th in g la stin g w o u ld com e o f it. T h e m a jo rity cla im e d th a t V illie rs w o u ld b e c o m e y et a n o th e r to y o f th e K in g th a t w o u ld be d isc ard ed as so o n as h e g o t b o re d w ith it21.
C o n tra ry to c o m m o n ex p ectatio n s, th e first en c o u n te r b e tw e e n Ja m e s a n d G eo rg e, w h ic h w a s h e ld in F a rn h a m in 1615, w a s a sp rin g b o ard , la u n ch in g th e ir deep a n d c o m p a ra tiv e ly u n u su a l rela tio n sh ip . T h e c o m p a riso n w a s m ad e as th a t b e tw e e n a “fath er and c h ild ” or “s p o u s e s ”. S u c h ex p re ssio n s are p re se n t in th eir
17 Ibidem. 18 Ibidem.
19 Own translation quoted from: N. Cawthorne, op.cit., p. 53. 20 Ch. Carlton, op.cit., p. 50.
c o rresp o n d en ce. In on e o f th e letters, a fte r V illie rs ’ m arria g e, Ja m e s w ro te:
My sweetest and most beloved child! Your beloved father gives you and your daughter his blessing. The Lord sends you sweet and cheerful awaking, all the best in this sacred bed and bless the following fruits, now that I have boys in alcove to play with. My dear, when you grow up, keep away from people’s importunity, who may put confusing ideas in your head so that I could see our glittering, white teeth and so that you could keep me company in my journeys. God bless you. James R22.
G e o rg e V illie rs ’ sp e e d y rise in p o w er an d statu s is a sc rib e d n o t o n ly to h is o u tstan d in g a ttra c tiv e n ess, b u t also th e d ip lo m a tic sk ills he d isp lay e d . U n lik e o th e r o f th e K in g ’s lovers, V illie rs w a s b e st ab le to a d ju st h is b e h a v io u r a n d b e lie fs to the re q u ire m e n ts o f a situ atio n . He, fo r ex am p le, ac te d a s a m e d ia to r in a rg u m e n ts b e tw e e n th e K in g an d th e Q u een a n d also, w a s sk ilfu l in easin g th e p ain o f th e first o b v io u s sig n s o f Ja m e s g ro w in g o ld er (he su ffe re d fro m p o rp h y ria). G eo rg e a lso sh o w e d h is d e v o tio n to Ja m e s in m a n y o th e r resp ec ts. T he ex p la n a tio n o f su c h d e d ic a tio n lies n o t in G e o rg e ’s deep a ffe c tio n he h e ld fo r th e K ing, b u t can b e d isc o v ered in the y o u n g m a n ’s u n d e rsta n d in g th a t w ith o u t h is Ja m e s, h is o ffic es an d the w e a lth he cam e to p o sse ss w o u ld h av e little value.
T h e re la tio n sh ip w a s b ase d on th e ir m u tu a l n e e d an d re a lisa tio n th a t th e y w e re in d isp e n sa b le to each o ther. T h u s, th e K ing re c ip ro c a te d G e o rg e ’s d e v o tio n b y treatin g h im as a so n an d taking ca re o f h is fam ily. G e o rg e V illie rs ’ caree r p ro g re ssio n w a s m eteo ric an d h is ac c ru in g o f p re fe rm e n t w a s far su p e rio r to an y o n e else in the kin g d o m . T h e p a rv e n u w a s k n ig h te d as a G e n tle m a n o f B ed c h a m b e r in 1615, the fo llo w in g y e a r h e b ecam e B aro n W h a d d o n an d V isc o u n t V illiers, in 1617 E a rl o f B u ck in g h am , in 1618 M arq u e ss o f B u c k in g h a m a n d fin a lly in 1623 E a rl o f C o v e n try a n d D u k e o f B u c k in g h a m - th e first n o n -ro y a l d u k e ”23 in th e K in g ’s re a lm fo r ov er a century.
22 Own translation quoted from: N. Cawthorne, op.cit., p. 54. 23 K.O. Morgan, The Oxford History o f Britain, Oxford, 2001, p. 352.
T h e co n c e n tra tio n o f su ch p o w e r an d statu s w ith in one p e rso n m u st h av e g iv e n rise to en v y a n d in d ig n a tio n am o n g st th e m e m b e rs o f the ro y a l c o u rt as w e ll a s P arliam en t. A lso , th e sp a w n in g o f a n x ie ty w as, certain ly , c a u sed b y th e fact th a t in p re v io u s y e a rs th e K in g w a s apt “to sin g le o u t p eo p le in p o litica l life, w h o w e re n o t v e ry o u tsta n d in g ”24. In sp ite o f m o u n tin g c riticism , Ja m e s w o u ld re p ly blu n tly : “C h rist h ad H is Jo h n a n d I h av e m y G e o rg e ”25.
T h e p ro b lem s o f th e C ro w n d u rin g th e tim e o f B u c k in g h a m ’s a sc e n d a n c y w e re little d iffe re n t to th o se te n y e a rs b efo re. T h e c o n stan t lack o f m o n e y th a t Ja m e s an d C a rr h a d face d a n d w h ic h th e y h ad re so lv e d b y the su p p re ssio n o f P a rlia m e n t fo r elev en y ears, cro p p ed up in th e e a rly tw e n tie s w h e n V illie rs w a s at th e K in g ’s side. T o fill th e C ro w n ’s v au lts, J a m e s - fo llo w in g B u c k in h g a m ’s a d v ic e - reso rte d to n u m e ro u s fin an ce e n h a n c in g sc h em es. O n e o f w h ic h w a s th e settin g up o f th e o rd e r o f baro n e ts, w h ic h w a s the se llin g o f h o n o u rs fo r cash. T h e n u m b e r o f title s so ld ro se q u ic k ly e sp e c ia lly in co m p a riso n w ith ea rlie r decad es. F o r in stan ce, d u rin g E liz a b e th ’s re ig n o n ly 1 8 p e e ra g es w e re so ld w h e re a s b e tw e e n 1 6 0 3 -1 6 2 0 ab o u t 4 8 26. A s m ore an d m o re h o ld e rs co u ld b o a st o f h a v in g a title, th e a ttra c tiv e n ess o f the p u rc h a se b e g a n to w e a r off. T h e eco n o m ic p rin c ip le o f ‘su p p ly and d e m a n d ’ led to a d ec re a se in th e price, a n d th e in itia tiv e no lo n g er g e n e ra te d a s m u ch m o n e y as w o u ld h av e b e e n h o p e d for.
T o th e sam e, if n o t g re a te r extent, B u c k in g h am p a rtic ip a te d in la y in g th e fo u n d a tio n s o f a re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e K in g an d P arlia m e n t fro m 1 6 2 1 w h e n it w a s su m m o n e d a fte r a n ele v e n -y e ar b reak . T h e H o u se o f C o m m o n s ta rte d o ff b y critic isin g th e se llin g o f m o n o p o lie s a n d o th e r a d m in istra tiv e ab u ses. C o n seq u e n tly , an e n q u iry w a s ord ered , w h ic h a fter fo u r m o n th s e n d e d w ith c h a rg es b e in g laid a g a in st tw o m in o r en trep ren eu rs: S ir F ra n c is M itch ell an d S ir G iles M o m p e sso n 27. A lth o u g h no o ffic ia l a c c u sa tio n s w e re m a d e a g a in st
24 Own translation quoted from: N. Davis, Wyspy, Kraków 2003, p. 489. 25 Ch. Daniell, op.cit., p. 118.
26 J. P Kenyon, op.cit., p. 86. 27 Ibidem, p. 92.
B u ck in g h am , th e M P s co u ld feel th a t th e y w ere b e g in n in g to g a in the u p p e r h and. F o r ex am p le, in M a y 1621 th e C o m m o n s p rep ared re g u la tio n s stre n g th e n in g th e p e n a l law s fo r C ath o lics, b u t o n ly at the re q u e st o f k in g Ja m e s, w e re th e y su sp e n d e d u n til to th e fo llo w in g year.
B y N o v e m b e r th e sa les o f title s a n d m o n o p o lie s h ad d eclin ed d rastically , a n d Ja m e s, on V illie rs ’ a d v ice, a p p lie d fo r su b sid ie s to h e lp d efen d th e L o w e r P a la tin a te 28. T h e P a rlia m e n t g ra n te d its p e rm issio n fo r o n e fu rth er su b sid y m a k in g it su b ject to b o th the re in fo rc e m en t o f th e law s a g a in st C a th o lic s a n d th e te rm in a tio n o f d ip lo m a tic tie s w ith S pain. T h e la tte r d e m a n d w a s u n re a listic and in fu ria te d th e K ing. In re sp o n se to M P s ’ d em an d s, J a m e s - u n d er B u c k in g h a m ’s in flu e n c e - th re a te n e d to im p riso n th e m e m b e rs o f the H o u se o f C o m m o n s. In retu rn , th e M P s ’ re a c tio n w a s to p ro test fo rm a lly in th e Jo u rn a ls o f th e H o u se o f C o m m o n s:
The Commons now assembled in Parliament, being justly occasioned thereunto concerning sundry liberties, franchises and privileges of Parliament, amongst other here mentioned, do make the protestation following:
That the liberties, franchises, privileges and jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England [...] and that every Member of the said House hath like freedom from all impeachment, imprisonment, and molestation [...] for or concerning any speaking, reasoning, or declaring of any matter or matters touching the Parliament or Parliament-business; and that any of the said Members be complained of and questioned for anything done or said in Parliament, the same is to be showed to the King by the advice and assent of all the Commons assembled in Parliament, before the King give credence to any private information29
Ja m e s, a c tin g on th e sp u r o f th e m o m en t, to re up th e o ffen d in g d o c u m e n t an d d isso lv e d P arliam en t.
A t th e e n d o f J a m e s ’s reig n , B u c k in g h a m ’s last a n d p e rh a p s m ost sc a n d a lo u s d ecisio n w a s to b e c o m e in v o lv e d in a d arin g p la n w ith the K in g ’s so n - P rin ce C h arles. T h e tw o d e c id e d to v is it th e S p an ish
28 Ibidem.
29 Historical Collections of Private Passages of State, weighty Matters in Law, Remarkable Proceedings in Five Parliaments, Vol. 6 [in:] M. Misztal, op.cit., p. 147.
c o u rt in co g n ito . T h is sh o c k in g a n d m o st in a p p ro p ria te b e h a v io u r re su lte d in th e callin g o f f o f th e m a rria g e plans, an d c o n se q u e n tly b ro u g h t E n g la n d c lo se r to w a r w ith S pain. T h e iro n y w a s th a t this m isc o n d u c t in S p ain h e lp e d th e D u k e o f B u c k in g h am g a in p o p u larity .
P arlia m e n t w a s su m m o n e d in 1624 a n d th ro u g h B u c k in g h a m ’s p ersu asio n , its m e m b e rs g ra n te d th e ir c o n sen t to g iv e su b sid ie s for w a r w ith S pain. In re tu rn P a rlia m e n t d em a n d e d the a b o litio n o f m o n o p o lie s, p a rtic ip a tio n in th e c o n tro l o f ex p e n se s an d th a t th e K ing w o u ld n o t b e a llo w e d to m a k e im p o rta n t d ec isio n s in fo reig n p o licy w ith o u t P a rlia m e n t’s sa n c tio n 30. T h e m o n e y ra ise d to d efeat the S p a n ish w a s w asted , sin c e th e e x p e d itio n failed as so o n a s th e E n g lish h a d cro ssed th e C h an n el. It so ap p ears, Ja m e s I in th e last m o n th s p rio r to h is d e ath w a s u n fo rtu n a te e n o u g h to ex p e rie n c e a se ries o f failu res, to w h ic h c learly B u c k in g h a m h a d co n trib u ted .
In su m m ary , it is b e y o n d q u e stio n th a t R o b e rt C a rr e x erted a n o tic e a b le in flu en ce on Ja m e s I b o th in p o litics an d p e rso n a l life. E n g lish so c ie ty w a s in d ig n a n t at th e K in g ’s b ein g so le n ien t an d o b ed ien t, y e t th e y w o u ld ra th e r p u t th e b lam e on R o b e rt C arr, n o t J a m e s I, fo r the C ro w n ’s m o ra l as w e ll a s fin a n cial failu res. O ne c o n te m p o ra ry a c c o u n t su m m a rise d it in th e fo llo w in g w ay: “T he e x h ib itio n o f th ese g o ld cav es co st E n g la n d m o re th a n Q u een E liz a b e th h ad sp e n t d u rin g all th e w a r s ”31.
G eo rg e V illie rs ’ in v o lv e m e n t in g o v e rn in g th e c o u n try w a s quite d iffe re n t fro m th a t o f R o b e rt C arr w h o “n e v e r c o m p e te d fo r p o litical p o w e r”32. T h is n e w K in g ’s fa v o u rite n o t o n ly d id so b u t a lso g a in e d it. B u c k in g h a m ’s v a rio u s p o litical d e c isio n s a t h o m e an d in fo reig n a ffa irs a s w e ll a s in m a tte rs o f relig io n , ech o ed lo u d ly th ro u g h o u t the k in g d o m as w e ll as ab ro ad . H is d ip lo m a c y a n d in flu en ce , w h ic h on th e on e h a n d en ab led h im to tak e o v er th e h ig h e st p o sitio n s in the co u n try , on th e o th er d id n o t p re v e n t h im fro m b e c o m in g in v o lv e d in
30 H. Zins, op.cit., p. 170. 31 Ch. Carlton, op.cit., p. 59. 32 J. P Kenyon, op.cit., p. 84.
sc a n d a ls an d c o rru p tio n 33. W h a t is re m a rk a b le ab o u t V illie rs is th a t he d id n o t fall fro m p o w er th e m o m e n t h is lo v e r an d p atro n died. A s a close frie n d o f J a m e s ’s son, h e c o n tin u e d to ex ert in flu e n c e on po litics an d e x ercise p o w er d u rin g the re ig n o f C h a rle s I.
It is n o te w o rth y th a t th e te rm h o m o se x u a l cam e into u se in the E n g lish la n g u a g e at th e tu rn o f th e 1 9 th cen tu ry , up to w h ic h tim e p eo p le h a d n o t b e en id e n tifie d ac c o rd in g to th e ir se x u a l p referen ces. K in g Ja m e s, w h o in p resen t te rm in o lo g y w a s ‘g a y ’, re g a rd e d h o m o se x u a lity as an u n fo rg iv a b le s in 34. In te re stin g ly eno u g h , th ere w a s a p e n a l co d e on th e b a sis o f w h ic h h o m o se x u a ls co u ld be p ro sec u ted , b u t in re a lity th is law w a s sc a rc e ly ev e r a p p lie d in p ractice. T h e re aso n fo r th is c o u ld b e th a t p eo p le su ch as th e K ing, R o b e rt C arr, G eo rg e V illie rs an d o th er g a y V IP s fro m th e ro y a l court w o u ld ra th e r h av e k e p t th is clau se o f th e C rim in a l C o d e u n u se d so as it co u ld n o t a ffe c t them . A ltern ativ e ly , th e y activ a te d th e o ld adage: on e law fo r th e rich, a n o th e r fo r the poor.
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