The Journal of Juristic Papyrology Vol. XXIV, 1994, pp. 149-190
Jan Krzysztof Winnicki
C A R R Y I N G O F F A N D B R I N G I N G H O M E T H E S T A T U E S O F T H E G O D S
ON AN ASPECT OF THE RELIGIOUS POLICY OF THE PTOLEMIES TOWARDS THE EGYPTIANS*
A c c o r d i n g to several Egyptian and Greek sources the Ptolemies used to bring back to Egypt statues of the gods and other sacred objects which were taken away by the Persians. This information is in accordance with our un-derstanding of the policy of the Ptolemies towards the E g y p t i a n s and their religion. T h e Ptolemaic rulers who were recognized as heirs of the Pharaohs by the native population of the Nile valley adopted the traditional role and, thus, reinforced the a c c e p t a n c e of their rule, building temples and patroniz-ing the Egyptian cults. They even held, at least theoretically, the function of the chief priests of these cults.
M o s t scholars tend to believe that information c o n c e r n i n g the retrieval of lost statues and sacred objects is simply untrue. A c c o u n t s of such events have been explained as a stereotype f o r m u l a , c o n v e n t i o n a l phrase, cliché, topos} M y own studies on the subject have led me to conclude that it is this
" An abbreviated version of this paper was read in September 1990 at a seminar held in the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor (USA). I am deeply grateful to Prof. L. KOENEN for inviting me to attend and his help. I am also indebted to the participants of the seminar, especially prof. U. KAPLONY-HECKEL, for several suggestions, which were extremely helpful in my further work. My thanks are due to J. MANNING, who corrected my English.
1 E.g. H . VOLKMANN, RE 2 3 , 1 9 5 9 , 1 6 8 4 ; C . B . WELLES, Historia 5 2 , 1 9 7 0 , 4 8 4 ; P . KAPŁONY, CdE 46, 1971, 257 n. 1; W. SWINNEN, [in:] Les syncretismes dans les
reji-150 J.K. W I N N I C K I
very view which should be regarded as a stereotype, a topos which is given hardly any thought.
Opinions either for or against the reliability of the sources have never been argued efficiently. Scholars who doubt the historical value of the data provided by hieroglyphic texts are firmly convinced that Egyptian priests, the authors of the texts, tended to exaggerate the glory of the rulers. As evi-dence for this point of view they offer references to two publications, both by Walter Otto, i.e. Priester und Tempel im hellenistischen Ägypten (1908)2 and Beiträge zur Seleukidengeschichte des 3. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. ( 1928).3 Otto considers the historical value of the Egyptian sources to be consider-ably limited. He refers to them as examples which reveal the Egyptian priests' lack of k n o w l e d g e and their incompetence in historical matters. Based on Greek sources, he presumes that Ptolemy III Euergetes returned some statues carried off by the Persians to the Egyptian priests in order to win their f a v o u r .4 Among the sources which he mentions there is also the Greek version of the Canopus decree, although its Egyptian version is in his opinion a stereotype f o r m u l a of little historical value. Nevertheless, he rightly doubts the reliability of formulae which occur in Egyptian texts.3 The question this paper will address is whether we are indeed dealing with such formulae in the sources.
As far as I know, the only scholar who supports the historical value of these sources is D. Lorton. He stresses that the Pithom stela reveals several extremely precise data connected with the transportation of these statues,
gions grecque et romaine, Colloque de Strasbourg, Paris 1973, 116-117; W. Huss, Un-tersuchungen zur Aussenpolitik Ptolemaios' IV., Munich 1976, 7 0 η. 296; R. BIANCHI. LÀ 5, 1984, 4 9 2 .
2 II, pp. 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 .
3 ABAW 34, 1. Abh., 6 8 n. 5. The author refers to A. BOUCHÉ-LECLERCQ, Histoire
des Lagides, I, Paris 1903, 177 η. I, w h o interprets the fragment of the Pithom stela as
referring to an expedition of Ptolemy II to Persia and calls it "flattene sacerdotale". The actual goal o f the e x p e d i t i o n w a s the "territory of the Philistines", s e e d i s c u s s i o n below.
4 Ibidem, p. 6 9 η. 1; 70. Similarly CL. PRÉAUX, L'Economie royale des Lagides,
Brussels 1939, 371.
5 On the subject cf. remarks by W. HELCK, Jahresbericht des Instituts für
Vorge-schichte der Universität Frankfurt a.M., 1976, Munich 1977, 7-8; A . B . LLOYD, JEA
C A R R Y I N G O F F A N D B R I N G I N G H O M E T H E S T A T U E S O F T H E G O D S 1 5 1
and states that "it is improbable that such a detailed narration could be a mere f a b r i c a t i o n " .6
There is a number of relevant problems in need of discussion in a broad historical context. The following paper is devoted to presenting: i) A review of the data concerning the relocation of statues in the ancient world; ii) Evi-dence for the relocation of the statues from Egypt; iii) Sources mentioning the statues brought back by the Ptolemies; and iv) Conclusions.
I. A R E V I E W O F D A T A
C O N C E R N I N G T H E R E L O C A T I O N O F S T A T U E S I N T H E A N C I E N T W O R L D
The abduction of images of the gods goes back to the second millen-nium B.C. and is known in the Ancient Near East, Greece and Italy. It is frequently mentioned in cuneiform sources, especially those concerning Assyria and Babylonia. In considering these records, it should be noted first of all that not every conquest was accompanied by acts of violence aimed at the e n e m y ' s gods. Such acts usually occurred when an attacked city put up fierce resistance before being taken or when a subjugated province rose in unsuccessful rebellion. The abduction of statues were in such cases means of repression and humiliation of the defeated enemy. Conquests also pro-vided an opportunity to retrieve statues captured earlier by the e n e m y .7 Statues were sometimes returned voluntarily, especially if they had been carried off by a predecessor of the current king and the political conditions had changed in the meantime. For instance, Sennacherib (688-681? B.C.) is known to have returned the statues carried off from Elkallate 4 1 8 years earlier.8 Esarhaddon (680-669) recalls that his father Sennacherib had car-ried off the statues of the Arabs from Adumatu (El-Gauf) and says that upon the Arab k i n g ' s request:
"I repaired the damages of the images of (names of the gods), the gods of the Arabs, and returned them (...) after having written upon them an
in-6JEA 5 7 , 1 9 7 1 , 1 6 2 - 1 6 4 .
7 Cf. e.g. A . K . GRAYSON, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, L o c u s t V a l l e y -N e w York 1975, passim, a l so s o u r c e s m e n t i o n e d in the f o l l o w i n g notes and others dis-c u s s e d in part II o f this paper.
8 Bavian Stela, 4 8 - 5 0 — D . D . LUCKENBILL, The Annals of Sennacherib, C h i c a g o 1 9 2 4 ( O I P 2 ) , 8 3 . S e e J . A . BRINKMANN, A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia, R o m e 1968, 1 2 4 - 1 2 6 .
1 5 2 J . K . W I N N I C K I
s c r i p t i o n ( p r o c l a i m i n g ) the ( s u p e r i o r ) m i g h t of A s h u r , my lord, and my o w n n a m e " .9
U p o n i n v a d i n g B a b y l o n i a in 5 3 9 B . C . and c r e a t i n g t h e Persian E m p i r e , C y r u s p r o c l a i m e d h i m s e l f the s u c c e s s o r of t h e B a b y l o n i a n kings, restored t h e t e m p l e s in B a b y l o n i a , A s s y r i a and E l a m , and r e t u r n e d to t h e m statues w h i c h the last B a b y l o n i a n king N a b o n i d u s had carried o f f .1 0 H e a l s o ord e r e ord t h e J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e to be restoreord anord r e t u r n e ord its sacreord e q u i p -ment, instead of the statues which it o b v i o u s l y c o u l d not have, w h i c h had been seized o n c e by N e b u c h a d n e z z a r . "
E v e n t s t o o k a d i f f e r e n t turn u n d e r D a r i u s . O n c e he had put d o w n the Ionian revolt of 4 9 4 , he torched the t e m p l e of A p o l l o at D i d y m a e as an act of r e p r e s s i o n and carried off the statue of the d e i t y .1 2 X e r x e s f o l l o w e d a s i m i l a r policy, k n o c k i n g d o w n the f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and t e m p l e s of B a b y l o n and t a k i n g o n e of t h e s t a t u e s to S u s a a f t e r h a v i n g s u p p r e s s e d t h e revolt t h e r e .1 3 Later, in 4 8 0 B.C. he carried off the statues of H a r m o d i u s and
Aris-9 Prism Β IV, Aris-9-14 — R.C. THOMPSON, The Prisms of Esarhaddon and Ashurbani-pal, London 1931, 20; A.L. OPPENHEIM, [in:] J.B. PRITCHARD, Near Eastern Texts relat-ing to the Old Testament, Princeton 1955, 291-292 (from now on abbreviated as ANET2).
10 Chronicle of Nabonidus (Tabl. BM 35382), III, 21-22 (A.K. GRAYSON, op. cit.
(η. 7). no 7, pp. 104-111); Panegyric of Cyrus (BM 38299), VI, 18-24 (S. SMITH, Ba-bylonian Historical Texts, London 1924, 83); Rassam Cylinder (BM 90920), II. 32-34 (F.H. WEISSBACH, Die Keilinschriften der Achämeniden, Leipzig 1911, 2-9). Cf. О.T. OLMSTEAD, History of the Persian Empire, Chicago - London 1970, 54-55.
11 Esdras 1, 2-11; 4, 1-4; 5, 1-6, 18; 6, 3-5. On Nebuchadnezzar carrying off ves-sels, 2 Kings. 24, 13; 25, 14-17; 2 Chron. 36, 6; Daniel 1, 1-2. Extensive discussion
o f t h e p r o b l e m in E . DE VAUX, RB 4 6 , 1 9 3 7 , 2 9 - 5 7 . Cf. L . DEQUEKER, [ i n : ] J .
QUAEGE-BEUR (Ed.), Ritual and Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East, Louvain 1993 (OLA 55),
67-9 2 .
1 2 Herodotus VI 19. The fact is also attributed to Xerxes (Strab. XI 11, 4 (C 518); XIV 1, 5 (C 634); XVII 1, 43 (C 814); Paus. I 16, 3; VIII 46, 3. Cf. F. CAUER, RE 3,
1 8 9 9 , 8 0 9 - 8 1 3 , e s p . 8 1 1 , 10; H . W . PARKER, JHS 1 0 5 , 1 9 8 5 , 6 1 .
1 3 Herodotus I 183. It has been commonly assumed until now that the statue Xerxes abducted was that of Bel-Marduk. This view has been questioned recently by S.
SHER-WIN-WHITE [in:] H. SANCISI-WEERDENBURG and A. KUHRT (Eds.), Achaemenid History,
II. Greek Sources, Leiden 1987, 70-72. Cf. also EADEM, [in:] A. KUHRT - S. SHERWIN-WHITE (Eds.), Hellenism in the East. Berkeley - Los Angeles 1987, 8-9. She draws at-tention to the fact that Herodotus mentions a different statue, which it has turned out impossible to identify so far.
CARRYING OFF AND BRINGING HOME THE STATUES OF THE GODS 1 5 3
t o g e i t o n ,1 4 the a s s a s s i n s of t h e tyrant H i p p a r c h u s , o n e of the P i s i s t r a t i d a e , in 5 1 4 B . C . A l t h o u g h n o t g o d s , t h e p a i r e n j o y e d i m m e n s e p o p u l a r i t y in A t h e n s , b e i n g w i d e l y c o n s i d e r e d s y m b o l s of t h e s t r u g g l e f o r f r e e d o m . In-d e e In-d , s u c h w a s t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e t o the A t h e n i a n s that a n e w p a i r of i m a g e s w a s e r e c t e d in p l a c e of t h e lost o n e s already in 4 7 7 / 4 7 6 B . C .1 5
T h e p h a r a o h s of E g y p t f r e q u e n t l y o r g a n i z e d e x p e d i t i o n s to S y r i a , but statues a r e rarely listed a m o n g the booty. O n e s u c h r e c o r d s a y s that in y e a r 23 of his r e i g n T h u t h m o s i s III c a p t u r e d " a s i l v e r s t a t u e in f o r m of l...j, [a statue] ... with h e a d of g o l d . " A f e w items d o w n the s a m e list t h e r e is r e c o r d of " a s t a t u e of that e n e m y w h i c h w a s t h e r e of e b o n y w o r k e d w i t h g o l d , its head of lapis [ l a z u l i ] " .1 6 T h e latter statue is clearly i d e n t i f i e d as that of t h e d e f e a t e d e n e m y , but in t h e c a s e of t h e f o r m e r t w o t h e r e is no d a t a t o indi-cate their n a t u r e . T h e e m p h a s i s on the p r e c i o u s m a t e r i a l s they w e r e m a d e of w o u l d s u g g e s t they w e r e c a r r i e d o f f f o r this r e a s o n a l o n e a n d w e r e s u b s e -q u e n t l y r e m a d e t o suit t h e c a n o n s of E g y p t i a n a r t .1 7
T h e r e is m e n t i o n of a b d u c t i n g i m a g e s of e n e m y d e i t i e s in a story writ-ten in D e m o t i c d e s c r i b i n g D j e s e r ' s e x p e d i t i o n t o A s s y r i a . T h i s long, but un-f o r t u n a t e l y ill p r e s e r v e d m a n u s c r i p t dated to t h e 1 s t / 2 n d c e n t u r y A . D . h a s not b e e n p u b l i s h e d yet a n d is k n o w n o n l y f r o m a b r i e f s u m m a r y a n d a t r a n s l a t i o n of s o m e of t h e f r a g m e n t s .1 8 T h e c o m p l e t e l y m y t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r of the story a l l o w s n o c o n c l u s i o n s t o be m a d e c o n c e r n i n g its d a t e and t h e historical e v e n t s it m a y b e r e f e r r i n g to. Certain t h r e a d s of t h e story d r a w at-te n ti o n as p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c e d by G r e e k c u l t u r e .1 9
T h e G r e e k w o r l d w a s not a s t r a n g e r to the p r a c t i c e of a b d u c t i n g s t a t u e s e i t h e r . In the m y t h i c a l t a l e s of the sack of T r o y , O d y s s e u s a n d D i o m e d e s w e r e a l l e g e d to h a v e stolen the p a l l a d i o n , e v e n b e f o r e t h e G r e e k s t o o k t h e
1 4 Arrian, Anab. Ill 16, 7-8; VII 19, 2; Plin., NH XXXIV 69-70; Paus. I 8, 5; Valer. Max. 2, 10, ext. I. The information has been questioned by M. MOGGI, Ann. Pisa (Serie 3) 3, 1973, 1-42, but his line of reasoning is not convincing.
1 5 Thuc. VI 53, 3-59; Marmor Parium (FGH II 239), A 54; Arist., Athen. Pol. 58,
1; P a u s . I 8 , 5 ; 2 9 , 15. Cf. A . J . PODLECKI, Historia 15, 1 9 6 6 , 1 2 9 - 1 4 1 .
1 6 A n n a l s in t h e t e m p l e at K a r n a k — K . SETHE, Ork. I V , 6 6 6 - 6 6 7 ; A . J . WILSON,
ANET2, 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 .
1 7 W . HELCK, CdE 5 6 , 1 9 8 1 , 2 4 4 .
1X The papyrus is held by the Institute of Egyptology of Copenhagen University.
Cf. Α. VOLTEN, Ar. Or. 19, 1951, 70-74; J. BARNS, Akten des VIII. Intern. Kongresses
für Papyrologie, Wien 1955 (MPER 5. Folge), 33-34.
19 Cf. remarks of D. WILDUNG, Die Rolle der ägyptischen Könige im Bewusstsein
154 J.K. WINNICKI
city. M a n y later cities, i n c l u d i n g R o m e , c l a i m e d t o p o s s e s s T r o y ' s p a l i a d i o n , j u s t i f y i n g the old a g e a n d i m p o r t a n c e of t h e i r o w n d e i t i e s .2 0 I n f o r m a t i o n of this sort, w h i c h is c l e a r l y later than the e v e n t s it c o n c e r n s , is h a r d l y r e l i a b l e . T h a t t h e i m a g e s of t h e T r o y a n g o d s w e r e a c t u a l l y c a r r i e d o f f s e e m s b e y o n d d o u b t , but t h e t r u e c a u s e s r e m a i n u n k n o w n . S u r e l y it w a s not t h e i d e a to t r a n s f e r t h e c u l t of t h e c o n q u e r e d d e i t y a n d t h i s e l e m e n t in later m y t h s s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d as s e c o n d a r y . S i m i l a r i n s t a n c e s o c c u r r e d in Italy. T h e n u m b e r of 2 0 0 0 s t a t u e s t a k e n f r o m V o l s i n i is n o t e w o r t h y . T h e i m a g e of the g o d V e r t u m n u s w a s p r e s u m -ably part of t h e l o o t .2 1 In the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d t h e a b d u c t i o n of s t a t u e s b e c a m e a l m o s t s t a n -d a r -d p r a c t i c e . I n 311 B . C . P t o l e m y I S o t e r c a p t u r e -d i m a g e s of f o r e i g n d e i t i e s d u r i n g a p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n in the r e g i o n of S i n a i2 2 a n d s o did P t o -l e m y III E u e r g e t e s d u r i n g a c a m p a i g n in 2 4 6 B . C .2 3 It is n o t i r r e l e v a n t to r e c a l l h e r e that A n t i o c h u s IV c a r r i e d o f f t h e e q u i p m e n t of t h e J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e in 169 B . C . ; a c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s , this w a s m e r e r o b b e r y b e c a u s e A n t i o c h u s w a s s h o r t of m o n e y at the t i m e .2 4 I n s t a n c e s of s t a t u e s b e i n g r e t u r n e d to t h e i r o r i g i n a l t e m p l e s a r e a l s o k n o w n . W h e n A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t f o u n d t h e s t a t u e s of H a r m o d i u s a n d A r i s t o g e i t o n in t h e t r e a s u r y of S u s a , he o r d e r e d t h e i r r e t u r n to A t h e n s . But not b e f o r e the r e i g n of S e l e u c u s I or A n t i o c h u s I w e r e t h e s e s t a t u e s a c t u a l l y r e t u r n e d .2 5 S e l e u c u s I is a l s o p r e s u m e d to h a v e b e e n the r u l e r w h o r e t u r n e d t h e s t a t u e of A p o l l o w h i c h D a r i u s o n c e c a r r i e d o f f f r o m the o r a c l e in D i d y -m a e n e a r M i l e t u s .2 6
2 0 Strab. VI 1,14 (C 264); Paus. VIII 46, 2. Cf. L. ZIEHEN, RE 18, 1949, 171-185.
2 1 Plin., NH XXXIV 16 (34); W. EISENHUT, Der Kleine Pauly 5, 1975, 1219-1221.
22 Satrap stela (I. Cairo 22182), 1. 6. Cf. my article in Ane. Soc. 22, 1991, 164-185. Cf. also below pp. 170-171.
2 3 St. Jerom, Comm. in Daniel. XI 7-9.
2 4 1 Mac. 1, 20-24; 2 Mac. 5, 11-21; Jos., Ani., frg. 58 ( F H G IV, p. 58); Jos.,
Ant. X I I 5 , 4 ( 2 4 9 ) ; IDEM, C. Apion., II 7 ( 8 3 - 8 4 ) . C f . Ε . SCHÜRER - G . VERMES - P. MILLAR, The History,' of Jewish People, I, Edinburgh 1973, 151.
2 5 Sources provide contrary data. According to Arrian, Anab. Ill 16, 7-8; VII 19, 2;
Plin., NH XXXIV 69-70 it was Alexander; Gell. 7, 17, 2 and Valer. Max. II 10 ext. 1 attribute the deed to Seleucus while Paus. I 8, 5; VII 46, 3 — to Antiochus. Cf. J. MILLER, RE 7 , 1 9 1 2 , 2 3 7 8 ; M . MOGGI, Ann. Pisa ( S e r i e 3 ) 3 , 1 9 7 3 , 3 8 - 4 0 ; A . MEHL, Seleukos Nikator und sein Reich, Louvain 1986 (= Studia Hellenistica 28), 219-220.
2 6 Paus. III 16, 7 -9; VIII 46, 4, but in I 16, 3 the act is attributed to Xerxes. Cf. В.
C A R R Y I N G O F F A N D BRINGING H O M E T H E S T A T U E S O F T H E G O D S 155 In r e c o r d i n g O c t a v i a n ' s a b d u c t i o n of t h e s t a t u e of A t h e n a A l e a to R o m e , P a u s a n i a s ( V I I I 4 6 ) m e n t i o n s a n u m b e r of s i m i l a r i n s t a n c e s in t h e h i s t o r i e s of G r e e c e and P e r s i a and c o n c l u d e s : " T h e e m p e r o r A u g u s t u s o n l y f o l l o w e d a c u s t o m of t h e G r e e k s a n d the b a r b a r i a n s f r o m t i m e s of o l d " . A brief r e v i e w of t h e s o u r c e s p e r m i t s s o m e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s . W h i l e in O r i e n t a l s o u r c e s the i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s t a t u e s b e i n g c a r r i e d o f f a n d r e -t u r n e d c o m e s f r o m -t h e a c -t u a l p e r p e -t r a -t o r s a n d s o l e a v e s li-t-tle r o o m f o r d o u b t , C l a s s i c a l s o u r c e s , u s u a l l y r e c o r d e d m u c h l a t e r t h a n t h e r e l e v a n t e v e n t s , relate d i f f e r e n t m o t i v a t i o n s f r o m e v e n t to e v e n t , c o m p r o m i s i n g to an e x t e n t t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e s e s o u r c e s . In d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s t h e r e a s o n s f o r a b d u c t i n g d i v i n e i m a g e s w e r e d i f f e r e n t . T h e m o t i v e s m a y h a v e b e e n of a r e p r e s s i v e n a t u r e , a i m e d at h u m i l i a t i n g c o n q u e r e d p o p u l a t i o n s , as the c a s e w a s in B a b y l o n i a , A s s y r i a a n d P e r s i a . A ruler c o u l d a l s o wish to e m p h a s i z e in this w a y h i s s u c c e s s e s a n d the p o w e r and i m p o r t a n c e of his d e i t y to his s u b j e c t s . In the c a s e of s t a t u e s m a d e of p r e c i o u s s t o n e s a n d m e t a l s , c o m m o n r o b b e r y c o u l d h a v e c e r t a i n l y b e e n a c a u s e . F o r t h e R o m a n s , d i v i n e i m a g e s w e r e i m p o r t a n t a s t r o p h i e s , w h i l e O c t a v i a n a p p r e c i a t e d t h e m a s c o l l e c t o r item as w e l l . T h e P t o l e m i e s r e t r i e v e d lost s t a t u e s u n d o u b t e d l y as m e a n s of g a i n i n g the f a v o u r of local p r i e s t s a n d v i l l a g e r s , a n d this c o n s t i t u t e d an i m -p o r t a n t e l e m e n t of t h e i r r e l i g i o u s -p o l i c i e s .
II. THE EVIDENCE FOR CARRYING THE STATUES OFF FROM E G Y P T2 7
T h e f a c t that f o r m a n y c e n t u r i e s E g y p t e n j o y e d f r e e d o m , s u f f e r i n g o n l y f r o m brief e p i s o d e s of f o r e i g n o c c u p a t i o n , s h o u l d d o u b t l e s s b e a t t r i b u t e d to the c o u n t r y ' s g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n and its s t a t u s in r e s p e c t to its n e i g h -b o u r s . A l t h o u g h it is a s s u m e d that the p r i v a t e a n d r o y a l s t a t u e s as well as o t h e r o b j e c t s f r o m E g y p t of t h e M i d d l e K i n g d o m f o u n d in S y r i a w e r e t a k e n t h e r e by t h e H y k s o s w h o a l l e g e d l y p l u n d e r e d E g y p t i a n t e m p l e s a n d t o m b s , the f a c t is not d o c u m e n t e d in any of the s o u r c e s a n d r e m a i n s in n e e d of f u l l c l a r i f i c a t i o n .2 8 I n v a s i o n s , d u r i n g w h i c h a c t s of v i o l e n c e s u c h as t h e
2 7 For the statues of Egyptian deities see G. DARESSY, Statues de divinités, Cairo
1906 ( C G C ) ; F. VON BISSING, Ägyptische Kultbilder der Ptolemäer- und Römerzeit,
Leipzig 1936 (= Der Alte Orient 34); J. VANDIER, Manuel d'Archéologie Egyptienne, III, Paris 1958, 353ff.; S. CURTO, [in:] Studien zur Sprache und Religion Ägyptens. Fs. W. Westendorf, II, Göttingen 1984, 717-734: S. CAUVILLE, BIFAO 87, 1987, 73-117.
28 C f . W . HELCK, UF 8 , 1 9 7 6 , 1 0 1 - 1 1 5 ; W . A . WARD, UF 1 1 , 1 9 7 9 , 7 9 9 - 8 0 6 ; G . S . MATTHIAE, UF 16, 1 9 8 4 , 1 8 1 - 1 8 8 : D . B . REDFORD, Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient
156 J . K . W I N N I C K I
a b d u c t i o n of d i v i n e i m a g e s c o u l d h a v e o c c u r r e d , c a m e o n l y a f t e r t h e fall of t h e N e w K i n g d o m , i.e. in the first m i l l e n n i u m B . C .2 9 T h e N u b i a n c o n q u e s t is u n i q u e in this r e s p e c t a n d s h o u l d p r e s u m a b l y b e e x c l u d e d , s i n c e N a p a t a n c i v i l i z a t i o n w a s an o f f s h o o t of that of P h a r a o n i c E g y p t . T h e N u b i a n k i n g s a d o p t e d t h e E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o n a n d r e g a r d i n g t h e m s e l v e s as its d e f e n d e r s t h e y p r o t e c t e d t h e t e m p l e s f r o m d e v a s t a t i o n .3 0 O f c o u r s e , i n d i v i d u a l e x -c e s s e s of s o l d i e r s are a l w a y s p o s s i b l e r e g a r d l e s s of r o y a l piety or p o l i -c i e s . T h e A s s y r i a n s a n d the P e r s i a n s s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s p o s s i -ble p e r p e t r a t o r s of t h e a b d u c t i o n of s t a t u e s f r o m E g y p t . T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , n o E g y p t i a n r e c o r d s d e a l i n g with the p e r i o d of A s s y r i a n d o m i n a t i o n . F r o m c u n e i f o r m s o u r c e s it is k n o w n that a f t e r t h e f i r s t u n s u c c e s s f u l e x p e d i t i o n of 6 7 3 B . C . , t h e A s s y r i a n s i n v a d e d E g y p t on t h r e e s e p a r a t e o c c a s i o n s . E a c h
Times, Cairo 1993, 120-121. The abductions of statues and other objects from the same period, found in the territory of Nubia, must have occurred under different circum-stances. Cf. D . B . R E D F O R D , op. cit., 1 1 2 and bibliography there.
2 У Quoted sometimes by scholars, e.g. A . V O L T E N , Zwei altägyptische politische Schriften, Copenhagen 1 9 4 5 ( = An. Aeg. 4 ) , 8 7 ; H . - J . T H I S S E N , Studien zum Raphia-dekret, Meisenheim am Glan 1966 (= Beitrüge zur klassischen Philologie 23), 60, men-tion of the abducmen-tion of divine images in "Instrucmen-tions for King Merikare" is based on an erroneous interpretation of the text. Cf. Ε . R O W I Ń S K A - J . К . W I N N I C K I , ZÄS 1 1 9 , 1992, 130-143. The note on abductions in the times of Bocchoris mentioned by U. W I L C K E N , Hermes 4 0 , 1 9 0 5 , 5 5 2 , is the result of an erroneous understanding of the text of the "Oracle of the Lamb". Cf. below pp. 182-185.
3Ω Cf. Diodor III 2, 2-3; Ε. Ο ι τ ο , Ägypten — der Weg des Pharaonenreiches,
Stutt-gart 19664, 222; E. E N D E S F E L D E R , [in:] Ägypten und Kusch, Berlin 1977 (= Schriften zur Geschichte und Kultur des Alten Orients 13), 149. 160. King Pi made offerings in every temple he conquered (Urk. ILL 35, 6-9; 38, 10-11; reed. N. G R I M A L , Stèle triom-phale de Pi(cankh)y au Musée du Caire, Cairo 1981 [= MIFAO 105]). According to
Diodorus (I 65, 3. 5-8) Shabaka (c. 716-702 B.C.) was more pious than his predeces-sors. For Pi, Taharka, Shabaka cf. A. S P A L I N O E R , CdE 53, 1978, 23-33, esp. 25. On homage paid to Egyptian gods by Tanutamon cf. the Dream Stela (Cairo JE 48863; BAR I V §919-934; N. G R I M A L , Quatre stèles napatéennes du Musée du Caire, Cairo
1981 [= MIFAO 106], 3-20). W e cannot share the opinion of P. K A P Ł O N Y , CdE 46, 1971, 257 n. 1, that Nubians spirited sacred writings off from Egypt. Kapłony assumes that the expedition mentioned in the Satrap stela, according to which statues and holy writings were retrieved, concerned Nubia and refers this data to information in P. Brem-ner-Rhind (P. BM 10188) of 306/305 B.C. where there is supposed to be mention of "Raub eines heiligen Buches". The Satrap stela actually concerns the expedition of Pto-lemy I to Syria and the region of the Sinai ( c f . my article in: Ane. Soc. 22, 1991, 164-185), while the colophon of P. Bremner-Rhind indicates that its author was aware of the danger foreign invasions brought. Cf. below p. 166.
C A R R Y I N G O F F A N D BRINGING H O M E T H E STATUES O F T H E G O D S 1 5 7
t i m e t h e p h a r a o h , f i r s t T a h a r q a and t h e n T a n u t a m o n , r e t r e a t e d t o t h e s o u t h , to t h e f a m i l y s e a t at N a p a t a , a n d r e t u r n e d f r o m this r e f u g e to a t t a c k the A s -syrian g a r r i s o n s l e f t on t h e N i l e a n d to r e a c h a c c o r d s w i t h the c h i e f s of the n o m e s r e c r u i t e d f r o m a m o n g the E g y p t i a n s . It is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g then that r e p r i s a l s a i m e d at t h e p o p u l a t i o n , s a c k i n g of t h e c i t i e s a n d e x t e n s i v e b o o t y -t a k i n g , a c c o m p a n i e d s u b s e q u e n -t A s s y r i a n i n v a s i o n s .3' T w o c u n e i f o r m s o u r c e s s p e c i f i c a l l y m e n t i o n s t a t u e s of E g y p t i a n g o d s b e i n g c a r r i e d a w a y . T h e f i r s t is a s t e l a e r e c t e d o n t h e N a h r e l - K e l b r i v e r ( f o r m e r l y L y k o s ) in S y r i a s h o r t l y a f t e r E s a r h a d d o n ' s i n v a s i o n of E g y p t in y e a r 10 of his r e i g n , i.e. in 671 B . C .3- T h e s t e l a r e a d s : " I e n t e r e d M e m p h i s , his royal r e s i d e n c e , a m i d s t ( g e n e r a l ) j u b i l a t i o n a n d r e j o i c i n g ... a f t e r w a r d s ... [I e n | t e r e d ; and his p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y (lit. p a l a c e ) , the g o d s a n d g o d d e s s e s of T i r h a k a h , k i n g of N u b i a , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r p o s -s e -s -s i o n -s ... I d e c l a r e d a -s b o o t y " . A s i m i l a r b u t m o r e d e t a i l e d r e p o r t is to b e f o u n d in the c h r o n i c l e o r i g i -n a t i -n g f r o m B a b y l o -n w h i c h a c c o r d i -n g to the c o l o p h o -n w a s r e c o r d e d i-n y e a r 2 2 of D a r i u s I ( 5 0 0 / 4 9 9 ) . T h e c h r o n i c l e c o n c e r n s e v e n t s f r o m a b o u t t h e m i d d l e of the 8th to t h e m i d d l e of the 7th c e n t u r y B . C . a n d r e c o r d s f o r y e a r 10 of E s a r h a d d o n ' s r e i g n :3 3 " I n the m o n t h N i s a n the a r m y of A s s y r i a m a r c h e d t o E g y p t ( t e x t b r o -k e n ) .3 4 O n t h e third, s i x t e e n t h ( a n d ) e i g h t e e n t h d a y s of t h e m o n t h T a m m u z — t h r e e t i m e s — t h e r e w a s a m a s s a c r e in E g y p t ( V a r . a d d s : It w a s s a c k e d ( a n d ) its g o d s w e r e a b d u c t e d ) . O n the t w e n t y - s e c o n d d a y M e m p h i s , t h e r o y a l c i t y , w a s c a p t u r e d ( a n d ) a b a n d o n e d by its k i n g . H i s ( k i n g ' s ) son a n d b r o [ t h e r w e r e t a k e n p r i s o n e r . ( T h e c i t y ) w a s s a c k e d , its i n h a b i t a n t s p l u n -d e r e -d ( a n -d ) its b o o t y c a r r i e -d o f f ' ( I V , 2 3 - 2 8 ) . A f t e r t h e d e a t h of E s a r h a d d o n , T a h a r q a r e g a i n e d c o n t r o l of E g y p t , b u t A s h u r b a n i p a l sent his t r o o p s to c o n q u e r t h e c o u n t r y a g a i n . H i s s e c o n d c a m
-3 1 For Assyrian occupation cf. К . A . K I T C H E N , The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt, Warminster 1 9 7 3 , 3 9 1 - 3 9 8 ; A . S P A L I N G E R , Orientalia 4 3 , 1 9 7 4 , 2 9 5 - 3 2 6 ; I D E M , J AOS 94, 1974, 316-328. Demotic romances of the Petubast Cycle and the Chronicle
of John, Bishop of Nikiu refer to this occupation, however. Cf. A . S P A L I N G E R , JARCE
1 3 , 1 9 7 6 , 1 4 0 - 1 4 2 ; I D E M , SA К 5 , 1 9 7 7 , 2 4 0 .
3 2 D.D. L U C K E N B I L L , Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, II, Chicago 1 9 2 7 , § § 5 8 4 - 5 9 5 ; A . L . O P P E N H E I M , ANET2, 2 9 3 .
3 3A . L . O P P E N H E I M , ANET2, 3 0 2 - 3 0 3 ; A . K . G R A Y S O N , op. cit. (Η. 7 ) No. 1, I V , 2 3 -2 8 (pp. 8 5 - 8 6 ) . O n this c h r o n i c l e cf. ibidem, pp. 14-17. 69.
3 4 The remark refers to the text which was copied, cf. A . K . G R A Y S O N , op. cit., 8 5
158 J.K. WINNICKI p a i g n in 6 6 3 B . C . e n d e d with t h e s a c k a n d d e s t r u c t i o n of T h e b e s . T h e fall of t h e city h a d s u c h r e p e r c u s s i o n s t h r o u g h o u t the a n c i e n t w o r l d t h a t f i f t y y e a r s later t h e p r o p h e t N a h u m (3, 8 - 1 0 ) g a v e T h e b e s as an e x a m p l e of the f a t e a w a i t i n g t h e A s s y r i a n c a p i t a l of N i n i v e h .3 5 T h e s u r v i v i n g lists of t h e b o o t y p l u n d e r e d f r o m t h e city d o not m e n t i o n a n y s t a t u e s .3 6 N e v e r t h e l e s s , the m a t t e r s e e m s to b e o b v i o u s . J e r e m i a h ( 4 3 , 1 0 1 3 ) , in f o r e t e l l i n g N e b u -c h a d n e z z a r ' s a t t a -c k o n E g y p t in 5 6 8 , s p e a k s of " t h e h o u s e s of E g y p t i a n d e i t i e s b e i n g b u r n e d d o w n , t h e g o d s t h e m s e l v e s b e i n g b u r n e d o r a b -d u c t e -d " .3 7 T h u s , f o r t h i s p e r i o d t h e r e is e v i d e n c e of t h e a b d u c t i o n of i m a g e s of E g y p t i a n d e i t i e s . P e r h a p s part of t h e b o o t y w a s d i s c o v e r e d in t h e r u i n s of E s s a r h a d d o n ' s p a l a c e at N i n i v e h ; the f i n d s i n c l u d e d f r a g m e n t s of t h r e e life-size s t a t u e s of E g y p t i a n k i n g s , t w o of t h e m w i t h c a r t o u c h e s of T a h a r q a .3 8 N o r e c o r d s e x i s t f o r a n y s e i z u r e of E g y p t i a n g o d s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of t h e P e r s i a n o c c u p a t i o n .3 9 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is e v e r y r e a s o n to b e l i e v e that
3 5 The caravan of plunder f r o m Ashurbanipal's sack of Thebes, which passed through Palestine and Syria, may have been the source of this opinion. It may have also given rise to the legend about the incredible wealth of "hundred-gates Thebes" re-corded in the Iliad (IX 381-384). The latter opinion was repeated, together with a quote from the Iliad, by Diodorus (I 45, 4-7). Cf. W. B U R K E R T , Wiener Studien N.S. 10,
1976, 5-21. Great amounts of booty are also mentioned in a cuneiform tablet Brit. Mus. К 8692 which presumably concerns the occupation of Memphis by Assyrians. Publ. W.G. L A M B E R T , JJS 33, 1982, 392-397.
36 Cf. Rassam Cylinder, col. I I . 2 8 - 4 8 ( D . D . L U C K E N B I L L , op. cit. ( Η . 3 2 ) . I I , § 7 7 8 ; A . L . O P P E N H E I M , ANET2, 2 9 5 ) ; Brit. Mus. К 2 2 8 + К 2 6 7 5 ( D . D . L U C K E N B I L L , op. cit., § § 9 0 0 - 9 0 7 ; A . L . O P P E N H E I M , ANET1, 2 9 7 ) .
37 Cf. J . S C H W A R T Z , BI F AO 48, 1949, 76-78; A. S P A L I N G E R , SAK 5, 1977, 237-244; Ε. E D E L , GM 29, 1978, 13-20; A. L E A H Y , JEA 74, 1988, 183-189.
3 8 According to W.K. S I M P S O N , Sumer 1 0 , 1 9 5 4 , 1 9 3 - 1 9 4 , they were abducted around 670 B.C. by Esarhaddon or they could have been taken by Ashurbanipal around 6 6 3 B . C . Similarly J . Y O Y O T T E , Biblica 3 7 , 1 9 5 6 , 4 6 3 . The opinion of V . V I K E N T I E V -I . E . S . E D W A R D S - W . K . S -I M P S O N , Sumer 1 1 , 1 9 5 5 , 1 1 1 - 1 1 6 ; 1 2 9 - 1 3 3 ; 1 9 3 - 1 9 4 , that they were sent by Taharka himself is less probable.
3 9 The only Egyptian source in which scholars see an allusion to the abduction of a divine image (of Arsafes; J . J . C L È R E , RdE 6, 1951, 152 n. 5; G. R O E D E R , Die ägypti-sche Götterwelt, Zürich-Stuttgart 1959, 217) is the inscription of Semtutefnakht (Stela Naples Museum 1035 — K. S E T H E , Utk. II, 1-6; P. T R E S S O N , ΒIFAO 30, 1931, 369-391; G. R O E D E R , op. cit., 214-219; M. L I C H T H E I M , Ancient Egyptian Literature, III, Berkeley - Los Angeles - London 1980, 42-43 (transi.); О . P E R D U , RdE 36, 1985,
105g). The phrase which actually occurs there: "You have turned your back to Egypt" (ir.n.k s3.k r B3k.t, 1. 8) does not include more than just an allusion to the Persian
in-CARRYING OFF A N D BRINGING HOME THE STATUES O F T H E GODS 159
statues were carried off f r o m Egypt at that time, too. It is necessary first to present in brief terms the situation in Egypt at the time. It is k n o w n that the Persians conquered Egypt twice. During the first Persian conquest (525-404 B.C.) considerable numbers of Persian troops were engaged in crushing n u m e r o u s revolts. In 4 0 4 В С the E g y p t i a n s won i n d e p e n d e n c e f o r s o m e time. A f t e r several expeditions organized by subsequent rulers, the Persians recaptured Egypt in 343 and the country again b e c a m e a Persian s a t r a p y .4 0 Greek writers accused the Persians of n u m e r o u s e x c e s s e s against E g y p -tian religion. According to Herodotus, C a m b y s e s was the ruler w h o was in-f a m o u s in-f o r h a v i n g killed the sacred Apis b u l l ,4 1 t h r a s h e d a n u m b e r of priests, burnt the statues of gods in M e m p h i s and c o m m i t t e d m a n y other crimes against the E g y p t i a n s .4 2 Later Greek sources provide further details. D i o d o r u s says that the Egyptians rose in rebellion, as they were unable to e n d u r e the harshness of Persian dominion and their lack of respect f o r the native gods. He also m e n t i o n s that the temple of A m o n in T h e b e s4 3 w a s demolished and that "the silver and gold and costly w o r k s of ivory and rare
vasion. Cf. e.g., Israel stela: "In einem einzigen Jahr sind die Tjehenu aufgezehrt (ver-brannt) worden, denn Seth hat ihnen den Rücken (h3) gekehrt" (1. 11; KRI IV, 15; Ε. H O R N U N G , Festgabe H. Brunner, Wiesbaden 1983 (= ÄAT 5), 228); Tutankhamun Re-storation Stela: "This land (Egypt) had been struck by catastrophe, (because) the gods had turned their backs (mkh3) to it" (1. 8; Urk. IV, 2027, 11-12).
4 ( ) The more important bibliography concerning Persian rule is given in J.D. RAY, The Persian Empire. Egypt 525-404 B.C., [in:] САН IV, 1988, 833-839. Cf. also J.D. R A Y , Egypt: Dependence and Independence (425-343 B.C.), [in:] H . S A N C I C I W E E R D E N -BURG (Ed.), Achaemenid History. I. Sources, Structures and Synthesis, Leiden 1987, 79-95; P. Li RIANT, Ethno-classe dominante et populations soumises dans l'empire aché-ménide: Le cas d'Egypte, [in: ] A . K U H R T - H . S A N C I S I - W E E R D E N B U R G (Eds.), Achaeme-nid History. III. Method and Theory, Leiden 1988, 137-173; A . B . L L O Y D , Herodotus on Cambyses. Some Thoughts on Recent Work, ibidem, 55-66; V. W E S S E T Z K Y , 'Fragen zum Verhalten der mit den Persern zusammenarbeitenden Ägypter', GM 124. 1991, 83-88.
4 1 The killing of Apis is also recorded in Plutarchus, De Iside 44 (Mor. 368F); Jus-tinus I 9; Clemens of Alexandria, Protrepticus 4, 52, 8.
4 2 Herodotus III 29; 37. Strabo X 3, 21 (C 473) with reference to Herodotus, says that Cambyses ordered the temples of the Cabyri and of Hephaestus in Memphis to be destroyed. Justinus (I 9) mentions temples of Apis and other gods.
4 3 Diodorus (I 46, 2-4) does not mention the name of this temple, but his descrip-tion leaves no doubt as to the identificadescrip-tion. According to Strabon (XVII 1, 46 [C 816]) many temples in Thebes were destroyed by Cambyses. Pausanias (I 42, 3) attri-butes the destruction of the monumental statue of Memnon to him.
160 J.K. W I N N I C K I
stone were carried off by the Persians, when C a m b y s e s burnt the temples of E g y p t " .4 4 Strabo tells of a devastated temple in Heliopolis, "which a f f o r d s m a n y e v i d e n c e of the m a d n e s s and sacrilege of C a m b y s e s , w h o partly by fire and partly by iron sought to outrage the temples, mutilating them and burning them on every s i d e " .4 5 P o l y a e n u s {Strat. VII 9) says that C a m b y -ses ordered the sacred animals of Egypt to be driven in front of his troops so as to break d o w n the resistance of the Egyptians at Pelusium. St. J e r o m e (Comm. in Dan. X I 7 - 9 ) attributes the abduction of divine statues f r o m Egypt to this particular ruler.
Likewise, Artaxerxes III Ochus is thought to have killed the sacred Apis bull in M e m p h i s and the sacred ram in M e n d e s .4 6 D i o d o r u s s u m m e d up Persian policy towards the Egyptians at the time in the following terms:
" A r t a x e r x e s , a f t e r taking over all Egypt and d e m o l i s h i n g the walls of the most important cities, by plundering the shrines gathered a vast quantity of silver and gold, and carried off the inscribed r e c o r d s f r o m the ancient temples, which later on Bagoas returned to the Egyptian priests on the pay-ment of huge s u m s by way of r a n s o m " (XVI 51; Loeb).^
T h e accumulation of negative stories and particularly the fact that C a m -byses and Ochus are accused of the same or similar acts may raise doubts as to the reliability of these horror stories. It is believed that Herodotus, w h o travelled in Egypt around 4 5 0 B.C., based his opinions upon the i n f o r m a -tion provided by Egyptian priests disenchanted with C a m b y s e s b e c a u s e of his fiscal policies toward the temples as recorded in the D e m o t i c C h r o n i -cle.45^ T h e matter s e e m s to be rather more c o m p l i c a t e d and as yet
unex-4 unex-4 Diodorus I unex-4unex-4, 3; unex-46, unex-4; unex-49, 5. Similarly I 95, unex-4-5, where the author contrasts what Cambyses did with Darius' attitude toward priests and religion. A similar contrast is to be found in the Demotic Chronicle, Verso c, 7-8 (W. SPIEGELBERG, Die soge-nannte Demotische Chronik des Pap. No. 215 der Bibliothèque Nationale zu Paris, Leipzig 1914 (= Demotische Studien 7). Cf. Ε. BRESCIANI, EVO 4, 1981, 217-222.
4 5 XVII 1, 27 (C 805). Herodotus (IX 13) mentions Mardonius, a general of Xerxes, burning the temples in Athens in 480 and provides a number of details suggesting the act was not an attack on Greek religion.
4 6 Deinon in Plut., De Iside 11,31 (Moralin 355c; 363c; FC4 680 F 21); Aelia-nus, De Nat. Animalium, X 28; War. hist. IV 8; VI 8; Curt. 1(5); 7(29); Sulpicius Severus 2, 14, 4ff; 16. 8; Souda, s.v. ασατο.
4 7 The same author (XVII 49, 2) says the Egyptians welcomed Alexander because "the Persians had committed impieties against the temples and had governed harshly".
4 8 P. Bibl. Nat. 215, Verso d — W. SPIEGELBERG, op. cit. (η. 44). According to this document, only three temples, in Memphis, Letopolis (Wn-hm) and a locality to the north of Heliopolis (Pr-ĘFpj-lwn; PrH'pj-mht\ readings uncertain), retained the full
CARRYING OFF AND BRINGING HOME THE STATUES OF THE GODS 161
p l a i n e d .4 9 Thus, I would like to discuss these issues in s o m e detail, appre-ciating that it will hardly be an exhaustive treatment of the problem.
It is noteworthy that O c h u s invaded Egypt only a f t e r a n u m b e r of re-bellions had occurred, after the Persians had m a d e several u n s u c c e s s f u l at-tempts to r e c o n q u e r the country and incurred heavy losses while crossing the northern Sinai and, finally, after the stout resistance N e c t a n e b o II put up. In this light, the repressive measures taken against Egyptian cities and temples by the Persians appear quite likely. D i o d o r u s ' r e f e r e n c e ( X V I 51) to a detail connected with the looting of the Egyptian temples appears par-ticularly credible. W e learn f r o m it that the inscribed records carried off f r o m the old temples (ex των αρχαίων Ιερών άναγραφαί) were returned by Bagoas on payment of ransom. T h e Greek term άναγραφαί refers to practi-cally any f o r m of written r e c o r d .5 0 Kept in the ancient temples, h o w e v e r , these records m u s t have been old as well and, t h e r e f o r e , of great value. Hence the priests were willing to pay a high price f o r having them back. It may be conjectured, then, that the records were in some way connected with the cult. The eunuch B a g o a s had been a grey e m i n e n c e at the court of the last Persian kings, and the c o m m a n d e r of the Persian armies during the in-vasion. He poisoned the rulers one after the other and raised their succes-sors to the throne. H e shared the fate of his victims at last and died probably in 335 B . C .5 1 T h e year of his death indicates the a p p r o x i m a t e date of his
income from the earlier period; the rest got only half the cattle supplied to them, and were supposed to acquire birds and other products for offerings by themselves. In the opinion of E. BRESCIANI, EVO 6, 1983, 67-83, the mentioned temples are the only es-tablishments to retain their income in the area of Memphis, not the whole of Egypt. It is worth mentioning that Darius, who presumably took some action to improve the situation (E. DRIOTON - J. VANDIER, L'Egypte, des origines à la conquête d'Alexandre, Paris 1975, 602), is well remembered in Classical sources (Herodotus II, 110; Diodorus I 95, 4-5; Polyaenus, Strat. VII 11, 7). Cf. also n. 44.
4 9 The opinion of I. HOFMANN, SAK 9, 1981, 179-199, that the image of Cambyses recorded by Herodotus was formed in Babylonia and subsequently transferred to Egypt and adapted not always fortunately to local realities, seems rather unlikely. Cf. remarks b y T . S . BROWN, Historia 3 1 , 1 9 8 2 , 3 8 7 - 4 0 3 ; A . B . LLOYD, op. cit. (Η. 4 0 ) , 5 5 - 6 6 .
5<) Diodorus uses this term more frequently (e.g. I 46, 7; 69, 7; 96,1). ' Α ν α γ ρ α φ α ί or Upal άναγραφαί are mentioned as sources by Classical authors writing about E g y p t . Cf. F. PFISTER, Historia 10, 1961, 4 6 - 4 7 ; O . MURRAY, JEA 5 6 , 1 9 7 0 , 143, also e.g. P. Tebt. III.l 703, 63. 102. 167. 210. 211.
τ
162 J.Κ. WINNICKI
t r a n s a c t i o n w i t h t h e E g y p t i a n p r i e s t s , b e c a u s e it s e e m s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e t r a n s a c t i o n c o u l d not h a v e taken p l a c e d u r i n g t h e c a m p a i g n itself.
T h e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e p e r i o d of P e r s i a n d o m i n a t i o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d later E g y p t i a n s o u r c e s are f e w . T h e y i n d i c a t e that c e r t a i n P e r s i a n k i n g s a t t e m p t e d t o l e g a l i z e t h e i r a u t h o r i t y b y a d o p t i n g t i t u l a t u r e s i m i l a r t o t h e P h a r a o h s ,5 2 b y w o r s h i p p i n g E g y p t i a n g o d s ,5 3 a n d b y b u i l d i n g a n d r e s t o r -i n g t e m p l e s .5 4 In c o n t r a s t , t h e r e c o r d s m e n t i o n the p r e s e n c e of P e r s i a n t r o o p s in s o m e of t h e t e m p l e s a n d the r e s u l t i n g d i s t u r b a n c e s in t e m p l e pro-c e e d i n g s and p r i e s t s a b a n d o n i n g the t e m p l e s .5 5 T h e r e is i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
5- Only Cambyses and Darius I had Egyptian titulatures ( J . VON B F X K E R A T H , Hand-buch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Munich - Berlin 1984 (= MAS), 113-114. 278). In the case of Cambyses, we know that it was prepared by Udjahorresne, fleet comman-der uncomman-der Amasis and Psammetichus III and priest of Neith, who later served as chief physician to Cambyses and Darius in addition to other offices. The information comes from his biographical inscription prepared in the 3rd year of Darius I (519) on a stat-uette now in the Vatican Museum (Inv. No. 158 [113], 1. 13 — G. P O S E N E R , La pre-mière domination perse en Egypte, Cairo 1936 (= IFAO, BdE 11), 1-26. 164ff.; M. L I C H T H E I M , op. cit. ( Η . 39), 36-41 (transi.); A.B. L L O Y D , JEA 68, 1982, 166-180; U . K A P L O N Y - H E C K E L , Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments, I, Gütersloh 1983, 603-608 (transi.); I. R Ö S S L E R - K Ö H L E R , GM 85, 1985, 43-54. A text on a figurine from the mid 4th century B.C. found at Mit Rahina probably refers to the same person. Cf. Ε. B R E S C I A N I , EVO 8, 1985, 1-6. On the legitimacy of both rulers cf. remarks by K.M.T. A T K I N S O N , JA OS 76, 1956, 167-177.
5 3 In reference to Cambyses see a statuette of Udjahorresne, 11. 13-15. 22-23. 25-27. W e also know he asked advice of the oracle at Buto (Herodotus III 64). Presumably in the times of Darius I, the general Amasis observes in his stela from the Serapeum in Memphis (Louvre 359), 11. 4-5: "J'ai placé le respect pour toi (Apis) dans les coeurs du peuple et des étrangers qui étaient en Egypte" and says that he convinced the Persian heads of the nomes to make offerings to the dead Apis (G. P O S E N E R , op. cit., 41-47). The same author (op. cit., 177-178) is right in emphasizing that in this case Amasis was only fulfilling the orders of a satrap or king. According to Polyaenus, Strat. VII
11,7, Darius gave 100 talents of gold to bury Apis.
5 4 The restoration of the temple of Neith by Cambyses is mentioned on a statuette of Udjahorresne, 1. 19. W e also known that Darius built a temple at Hibis in Khargeh oasis (H.E. W I N L O C K , The Temple of Hibis in el-Khargeh Oasis, I, New York 1941 ; N . DE G A R I S D A V I E S , The Temple of Hibis in el-Khargeh Oasis, III, New York 1 9 5 3 ) , at Tod ( J . G R E N I E R , Tod, Cairo 1 9 8 0 [ = FIFAO 1 8 . 1 ] , 2 5 9 n. 1 6 4 ) , Kasr el-Goueita (A.B. L L O Y D , [in:] B . T R I G G E R e.a., Ancient Egypt. A Social History, Cambridge 1 9 8 3 , 2 9 4 ) , El-Kab (?; G. P O S E N E R , op. cit. ( Η . 5 2 ) , 1 7 9 ) , Busiris ( J . VON B E C K E R A T H , LÄ 1, 1 9 7 5 , 3 8 3 - 3 8 4 ; Porter-Moss, IV, 4 4 ) .
5 5 See Udjahorresne's Statuette, 11. 17-23. Inscriptions on a statue and statue-bases of Djedhor, a priest in Athribis, also refer to the second period of Persian rule (Cairo JE 46341; Chicago OI 10789); they were recorded at the beginning of the Ptolemaic period
CARRYING OFF AND BRINGING HOME THE STATUES OF THE GODS 163
s t r i f e a n d r e b e l l i o n , r e s u l t i n g in d a m a g e s i n c u r r e d b y c i t i e s a n d t h e i r resi-dents.-"16 M o r e o v e r , Cambyses·"1 7 a n d A r t a x e r x e s5 8 are said t o h a v e c o n f i s -c a t e d t e m p l e r e v e n u e s and s e v e r a l t e m p l e s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y d e s t r o y e d .5 9
T h e small n u m b e r a n d t h e a n a l y t i c n a t u r e of t h e d a t a c a n h a r d l y lead t o d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e P e r s i a n o c c u p a t i o n . Still less c a n b e said
and reveal that the presence of soldiers in the temple at Athribis had presumably inter-fered with daily proceedings at the temple (E. J E L Î N K O V À - R E Y M O N D , Les inscriptions de la statue guerisseuse de Djed-Her-le-Sauveur, Cairo 1956 (= IFAO, BdE 23); P. VER-NUS, Athribis, Textes et documents relatifs à l'histoire d'une ville du delta égyptien à l'époque pharaonique, Cairo 1978 (= IFAO, BdE 74), Doc. 160 and 300; E . J . S H E R M A N , JEA 67, 1981, 100). He mentions that he carried out the burials of the sacred falcons in secret "hidden before the foreigners (lj3s.wt)" (Chicago, В 9; similarly Cairo, TM 131). He also mentions the presence of numerous unembalmed falcons in "the chamber of 70 (presumably a kind of kiosk in which the mummified falcons rested for 70 days follow-ing their embalmfollow-ing)" (Chicago, В 9-10; Cairo, 42-43). The term h3sw.t used here seems to be unequivocal in referring to the Persians. Cf. E . J . S H E R M A N , JEA 67, 1981, 95(u). In his biography prepared in the first years of the rule of the Ptolemies, Petosi-ris, priest of Thot in Hermopolis, speaks of the temple being abandoned by the person-nel and priests in the Persian period (Tomb of Petosiris, inscription 81, 11. 29-33 — G. L E F E B V R E , Le tombeau de Petosiris, II, Cairo 1923; M. L I C H T H E I M , op. cit. [ Η . 39], 46 [transi.]).
5 6 According to the texts on the statuette of Udjahorresne, 11. 33-34. 40-41, the city of Sais and its inhabitants suffered during "the very great turmoil (nsn) when it hap-pened in the whole land" under Cambyses. See also inscription of Petosiris 81, li. 29-33, which mentions revolts and turmoil (nsn) in Egypt in the Persian period. E. OTTO, Die biographischen Inschriften der ägyptischen Spätzeit, Leiden 1954, 181 n. 4, as-sumes, however, that the text refers to the time of Macedonian rule. Revolts are also mentioned in Greek sources: Diodorus XI 71, 4; Thuc. I 104. 109-110; Herodotus III
12; VII I. 7.
57Demotic Chronicle, Verso d (cf. η. 44).
58 Satrap stela, 1. 9 (cf. η. 19). H . G O E D I C K E , BES 6, 1984, 39, assumes that Hsrys in the text is a transcription of the name Arses. Cf. however, remarks by A. S P A L I N G E R , ZÄS 105, 1978, 151-152.
5 9 A graffito in the temple of Satis on Elephantine from the year 282/281 speaks: "Die Ruhestätte der grossen Sothis. der Herrin von Elephantine, war zum Einsturz ge-bracht worden; (denn) der Meder war nach Ägypten gekommen" (II. 1 -4a; E. L Ü D D E K -K E N S , MDA1K 27, 1971, 203-206; U. K A P L O N Y - H E C K E L , MDAIK 43, 1986, 160-161). Mendes stela, 1. 9 (after 265/264; I. Cairo 22181 — К. S E T H E , Urk. II, no. 13 (pp. 28-54); H. DE M E U L E N A E R E - P. M A C K A Y , Mendes II, Warminster 1976, 174-177 [transi.]), mentions the destruction of the temple at Thmuis presumably by Artaxerxes III. A ge-neral note on damages done by the Persians in Egypt in the Canopus Decree (238 B.C.) and the Memphis Decree (217 B.C.) discussed below.
τ
162 J.Κ. WINNICKI
t r a n s a c t i o n w i t h t h e E g y p t i a n p r i e s t s , b e c a u s e it s e e m s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e t r a n s a c t i o n c o u l d not h a v e taken p l a c e d u r i n g t h e c a m p a i g n itself.
T h e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e p e r i o d of P e r s i a n d o m i n a t i o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d later E g y p t i a n s o u r c e s are f e w . T h e y i n d i c a t e that c e r t a i n P e r s i a n k i n g s a t t e m p t e d t o l e g a l i z e t h e i r a u t h o r i t y b y a d o p t i n g t i t u l a t u r e s i m i l a r t o t h e P h a r a o h s ,5 2 b y w o r s h i p p i n g E g y p t i a n g o d s ,5 3 a n d b y b u i l d i n g a n d r e s t o r -i n g t e m p l e s .5 4 In c o n t r a s t , t h e r e c o r d s m e n t i o n the p r e s e n c e of P e r s i a n t r o o p s in s o m e of t h e t e m p l e s a n d the r e s u l t i n g d i s t u r b a n c e s in t e m p l e pro-c e e d i n g s and p r i e s t s a b a n d o n i n g the t e m p l e s .5 5 T h e r e is i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
5- Only Cambyses and Darius I had Egyptian titulatures ( J . VON B F X K E R A T H , Hand-buch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Munich - Berlin 1984 (= MAS), 113-114. 278). In the case of Cambyses, we know that it was prepared by Udjahorresne, fleet comman-der uncomman-der Amasis and Psammetichus III and priest of Neith, who later served as chief physician to Cambyses and Darius in addition to other offices. The information comes from his biographical inscription prepared in the 3rd year of Darius I (519) on a stat-uette now in the Vatican Museum (Inv. No. 158 [113], 1. 13 — G. P O S E N E R , La pre-mière domination perse en Egypte, Cairo 1936 (= IFAO, BdE 11), 1-26. 164ff.; M. L I C H T H E I M , op. cit. ( Η . 39), 36-41 (transi.); A.B. L L O Y D , JEA 68, 1982, 166-180; U . K A P L O N Y - H E C K E L , Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments, I, Gütersloh 1983, 603-608 (transi.); I. R Ö S S L E R - K Ö H L E R , GM 85, 1985, 43-54. A text on a figurine from the mid 4th century B.C. found at Mit Rahina probably refers to the same person. Cf. Ε. B R E S C I A N I , EVO 8, 1985, 1-6. On the legitimacy of both rulers cf. remarks by K.M.T. A T K I N S O N , JA OS 76, 1956, 167-177.
5 3 In reference to Cambyses see a statuette of Udjahorresne, 11. 13-15. 22-23. 25-27. W e also know he asked advice of the oracle at Buto (Herodotus III 64). Presumably in the times of Darius I, the general Amasis observes in his stela from the Serapeum in Memphis (Louvre 359), 11. 4-5: "J'ai placé le respect pour toi (Apis) dans les coeurs du peuple et des étrangers qui étaient en Egypte" and says that he convinced the Persian heads of the nomes to make offerings to the dead Apis (G. P O S E N E R , op. cit., 41-47). The same author (op. cit., 177-178) is right in emphasizing that in this case Amasis was only fulfilling the orders of a satrap or king. According to Polyaenus, Strat. VII
11,7, Darius gave 100 talents of gold to bury Apis.
5 4 The restoration of the temple of Neith by Cambyses is mentioned on a statuette of Udjahorresne, 1. 19. W e also known that Darius built a temple at Hibis in Khargeh oasis (H.E. W I N L O C K , The Temple of Hibis in el-Khargeh Oasis, I, New York 1941 ; N . DE G A R I S D A V I E S , The Temple of Hibis in el-Khargeh Oasis, III, New York 1 9 5 3 ) , at Tod ( J . G R E N I E R , Tod, Cairo 1 9 8 0 [ = FIFAO 1 8 . 1 ] , 2 5 9 n. 1 6 4 ) , Kasr el-Goueita (A.B. L L O Y D , [in:] B . T R I G G E R e.a., Ancient Egypt. A Social History, Cambridge 1 9 8 3 , 2 9 4 ) , El-Kab (?; G. P O S E N E R , op. cit. ( Η . 5 2 ) , 1 7 9 ) , Busiris ( J . VON B E C K E R A T H , LÄ 1, 1 9 7 5 , 3 8 3 - 3 8 4 ; Porter-Moss, IV, 4 4 ) .
5 5 See Udjahorresne's Statuette, 11. 17-23. Inscriptions on a statue and statue-bases of Djedhor, a priest in Athribis, also refer to the second period of Persian rule (Cairo JE 46341; Chicago OI 10789); they were recorded at the beginning of the Ptolemaic period
CARRYING OFF AND BRINGING HOME THE STATUES OF THE GODS 163
s t r i f e a n d r e b e l l i o n , r e s u l t i n g in d a m a g e s i n c u r r e d b y c i t i e s a n d t h e i r resi-dents.-"16 M o r e o v e r , Cambyses·"1 7 a n d A r t a x e r x e s5 8 are said t o h a v e c o n f i s -c a t e d t e m p l e r e v e n u e s and s e v e r a l t e m p l e s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y d e s t r o y e d .5 9
T h e small n u m b e r a n d t h e a n a l y t i c n a t u r e of t h e d a t a c a n h a r d l y lead t o d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e P e r s i a n o c c u p a t i o n . Still less c a n b e said
and reveal that the presence of soldiers in the temple at Athribis had presumably inter-fered with daily proceedings at the temple (E. J E L Î N K O V À - R E Y M O N D , Les inscriptions de la statue guerisseuse de Djed-Her-le-Sauveur, Cairo 1956 (= IFAO, BdE 23); P. VER-NUS, Athribis, Textes et documents relatifs à l'histoire d'une ville du delta égyptien à l'époque pharaonique, Cairo 1978 (= IFAO, BdE 74), Doc. 160 and 300; E . J . S H E R M A N , JEA 67, 1981, 100). He mentions that he carried out the burials of the sacred falcons in secret "hidden before the foreigners (lj3s.wt)" (Chicago, В 9; similarly Cairo, TM 131). He also mentions the presence of numerous unembalmed falcons in "the chamber of 70 (presumably a kind of kiosk in which the mummified falcons rested for 70 days follow-ing their embalmfollow-ing)" (Chicago, В 9-10; Cairo, 42-43). The term h3sw.t used here seems to be unequivocal in referring to the Persians. Cf. E . J . S H E R M A N , JEA 67, 1981, 95(u). In his biography prepared in the first years of the rule of the Ptolemies, Petosi-ris, priest of Thot in Hermopolis, speaks of the temple being abandoned by the person-nel and priests in the Persian period (Tomb of Petosiris, inscription 81, 11. 29-33 — G. L E F E B V R E , Le tombeau de Petosiris, II, Cairo 1923; M. L I C H T H E I M , op. cit. [ Η . 39], 46 [transi.]).
5 6 According to the texts on the statuette of Udjahorresne, 11. 33-34. 40-41, the city of Sais and its inhabitants suffered during "the very great turmoil (nsn) when it hap-pened in the whole land" under Cambyses. See also inscription of Petosiris 81, li. 29-33, which mentions revolts and turmoil (nsn) in Egypt in the Persian period. E. OTTO, Die biographischen Inschriften der ägyptischen Spätzeit, Leiden 1954, 181 n. 4, as-sumes, however, that the text refers to the time of Macedonian rule. Revolts are also mentioned in Greek sources: Diodorus XI 71, 4; Thuc. I 104. 109-110; Herodotus III
12; VII I. 7.
57Demotic Chronicle, Verso d (cf. η. 44).
58 Satrap stela, 1. 9 (cf. η. 19). H . G O E D I C K E , BES 6, 1984, 39, assumes that Hsrys in the text is a transcription of the name Arses. Cf. however, remarks by A. S P A L I N G E R , ZÄS 105, 1978, 151-152.
5 9 A graffito in the temple of Satis on Elephantine from the year 282/281 speaks: "Die Ruhestätte der grossen Sothis. der Herrin von Elephantine, war zum Einsturz ge-bracht worden; (denn) der Meder war nach Ägypten gekommen" (II. 1 -4a; E. L Ü D D E K -K E N S , MDA1K 27, 1971, 203-206; U. K A P L O N Y - H E C K E L , MDAIK 43, 1986, 160-161). Mendes stela, 1. 9 (after 265/264; I. Cairo 22181 — К. S E T H E , Urk. II, no. 13 (pp. 28-54); H. DE M E U L E N A E R E - P. M A C K A Y , Mendes II, Warminster 1976, 174-177 [transi.]), mentions the destruction of the temple at Thmuis presumably by Artaxerxes III. A ge-neral note on damages done by the Persians in Egypt in the Canopus Decree (238 B.C.) and the Memphis Decree (217 B.C.) discussed below.
164 J . K . W I N N I C K I
a b o u t the individual p o l i c y of each ruler. O u r o p i n i o n s are b a s e d on sup-p o s i t i o n s and not on d e f i n i t e k n o w l e d g e . T h e r e s e e m s to be a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the sources in the a c c o u n t s they provide. On t h e one hand, the Persian kings a p p e a r to have m a i n t a i n e d a f a v o u r a b l e attitude to-w a r d s E g y p t i a n religion, and on the other, the very s a m e rulers are k n o to-w n to h a v e o c c u p i e d E g y p t i a n t e m p l e s , d e s t r o y e d t h e m a n d c o n f i s c a t e d their r e v e n u e s . But this d i s c r e p a n c y might very well be only illusory. T h e privi-leged position of t e m p l e s in E g y p t was hardly a c c e p t a b l e to the P e r s i a n s . T h e c o n f i s c a t e d t e m p l e r e v e n u e s most likely r e p l e n i s h e d the f i n a n c i a l re-sources of the Persian kings, w h o probably w a n t e d to increase their o w n in-c o m e , not to o p p r e s s E g y p t i a n priests, though the p u r p o s e of r e d u in-c i n g their role may have been pursued as well.
T h e p r e s e n c e of Persian t r o o p s in s o m e t e m p l e s w a s not n e c e s s a r i l y a f o r m of r e p r e s s i o n . T h e w a l l s s u r r o u n d i n g the t e m p l e s m a d e t h e m easily d e f e n d a b l e against p o s s i b l e attacks in o c c u p i e d territory. T h e r e is e v i d e n c e f o r a c o m p a r a b l e o c c u p a t i o n of a t e m p l e in A t h r i b i s by M a c e d o n i a n t r o o p s d u r i n g the rule of P t o l e m y I as s a t r a p .6 0 If U d j a h o r r e s n e , one of the E g y p -tian c o l l a b o r a t o r s , r e p o r t s that the soldiers w h o stayed in t h e area of the t e m p l e of Neith in Sais buill their h o u s e s t h e r e ,6 1 it m a y s u g g e s t that the t r o o p s w e r e s t a t i o n e d t h e r e f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d of t i m e . U n d e r such cir-c u m s t a n cir-c e s , it is only natural that the temples must h a v e been seriously lim-ited in their religious f u n c t i o n , the more so that the f o r e i g n troops w e r e not f a m i l i a r with E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o u s c u s t o m s . I n t h e s e c o n d century B . C . , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e priests of the B u c h i s bull c a n c e l l e d the c e r e m o n y of the en-t h r o n e m e n en-t of en-the n e w bull en-twice b e c a u s e of en-the p r e s e n c e of f o r e i g n sol-diers in the t e m p l e of A m o n in T h e b e s .6 2
A s s u m i n g this e x p l a n a t i o n , it is all the m o r e d i f f i c u l t to u n d e r s t a n d why the P e r s i a n s d e l i b e r a t e l y d e s t r o y e d E g y p t i a n t e m p l e s . S i n c e m o s t of the in-f o r m a t i o n on the subject dates to the P t o l e m a i c period, it is possible that the f a c t s m e n t i o n e d in the s o u r c e s are not true and w e r e only attributed to the P e r s i a n s , while t h e texts, which were of a p u b l i c nature, reflected a certain p o l i c y of the p r i e s t s s u p p o r t e d by the n e w rulers, as s u g g e s t e d by s o m e scholars. It would seem, h o w e v e r , that it is not j u s t p r o p a g a n d a intended f o r
6 0 S e e the inscription of Djedhor (n. 54) — Cairo, 11. 2 4 - 2 8 . Cf. E.J. S H E R M A N ,
JEA 67, 1981, 100.
6 1 Statuette of Udjahorresne, I. 20.
62 Cf. J.K. W I N N I C K I , Ptolemäerarmee in Thebais, W r o c ł a w - Warszawa 1978, 52. 6 1 - 6 2 . '
C A R R Y I N G O F F A N D B R I N G I N G H O M E T H E S T A T U E S O F T H E G O D S 1 6 5
the general p u b l i c d e v o i d of a j u s t i f i c a t i o n in reality. S o u r c e s today at o u r disposal may a l w a y s be q u e s t i o n e d as biased. C o n s e q u e n t l y , r e c o r d s not in-tended f o r the m a s s e s take on a special i m p o r t a n c e .
A c o m m o n e l e m e n t of t e m p l e s built in the G r a e c o - R o m a n period a r e h i d d e n r o o m s f o u n d a l s o in s o m e of the P h a r a o n i c t e m p l e s . T h e e n t r a n c e s to these r o o m s w e r e m a s k e d , m a k i n g them accessible only to p e o p l e in the k n o w . T h e s e r o o m s served to hold objects of cult as indicated by texts and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s s o m e t i m e s f o u n d on the w a l l s inside t h e m .6 3 T h e inscrip-tions in the c r y p t s of the t e m p l e of D e n d e r a h are particularly i m p o r t a n t ; the b u i l d i n g was erected in the reign of P t o l e m y IX S o t e r and d e c o r a t e d in the times of P t o l e m y XIII. O n e of these records goes as f o l l o w s :
" P o r t e s par où l ' o n a c c è d e au M a g a s i n de D e n d e r a p o u r y c a c h e r les d i e u x et p o u r d i s s i m u l e r les idoles p a r è d r e s à celui qui vient du d e h o r s q u a n d les A s i a t i q u e s ( S t . t j . w ) m a r c h e n t c o n t r e l ' E g y p t e " .6 4
T w o other texts of a similar c o n t e n t are to be f o u n d in the c r y p t .6 5 W e find there St.tj.w " A s i a t i c s " and hmj.w " d e s t r o y e r s " as p e o p l e s t h r e a t e n i n g the t e m p l e . T h e f o r m e r c o m e s f r o m St.t w h i c h r e f e r s to the r e g i o n n o r t h -east of Egypt and w a s s o m e t i m e s used in the 4th century B . C . as a r e f e r e n c e to the Persian e m p i r e .6 6 T h e r e is no doubt the texts c o n c e r n the last Persian o c c u p a t i o n . B e s i d e the m e n t i o n e d nations, the texts a l s o r e f e r to P h o e n i -c i a n s ( F n h . w ) , G r e e k s ( H 3 w - n b . w ) and B e d o u i n s (hrj.w-s ; c3m.w) w h o s e
p r e s e n c e near the t e m p l e could h a v e been c o n s i d e r e d as a d a n g e r . It is un-likely that the latter attacked temples, but the threat certainly existed.
O n e of t h e f u n e r a r y papyri dated to 3 0 6 / 3 0 5 i n d i c a t e s h o w e x t e n s i v e this f e e l i n g of b e i n g threatened by f o r e i g n e r s was; in the c o l o p h o n w e read:
63 Cf. H . B O N N E T , Reallexikon, 4 0 1 - 4 0 2 ; С . T R A U N E C K E R , LÄ 3 , 1 9 8 0 , 8 2 3 - 8 3 0 . It is probably just such a crypt full of Egyptian statues hidden from the Christians that is described in the early 6th cenury A . D . by Zacharias Rhetor in his Life of Severus (transi, from Syriac by M . A . K U G E N E R , Patrologia Orientalis 2 , 1 9 0 7 , 1 6 - 3 5 ) . I k n o w the text only from A. B E R N A N D , Le delta égyptien d'après les textes grecs, I, Les con-fins libyques, Cairo 1970, 2 1 1 .
6 4 Eastern crypt no. 2 — Ε. C H A S S I N A T , Le temple de Dendara, V, Cairo 1952, 97. 6 5 Eastern crypt no. 2 — ibidem, V , 6 0 - 6 1 ; R . G I V E O N , Les Bédouins Sliosou des documents égyptiens, Leiden 1971, D o c . 53 a-b.
6 6 K . S E T H E , Urk. И 3 , 16; 4 , 4 ; Ε . C H A S S I N A T , Edfou V I , p. 2 3 6 , 3 - 4 . Cf. remarks by R. G I V E O N , op. cit., \12-\1Ъ.
166 J.K. W I N N I C K I
"As to any one of any country, (34) an Ethiopian of Kush or a Syrian who shall displace this book (35) or who shall remove(?) it from(?) me, they shall not be buried, . . . " P1
The fragment is an incantation against tomb robbers and expresses fear of foreigners invading. The text's author was obviously aware of such a threat.
There is also an objective non-Egyptian source on the subject of temple destruction, namely an Aramaic letter written in 407 B.Ü. by the Jewish priests from Elephantine to Bagoas, the Persian governor of Judea. The au-thors of the document ask for permission to restore their temple which was destroyed by the Egyptians three years before. They emphasize:
" O r (c'est) depuis les jours des rois d ' E g y p t e (que) nos pères avaient construit ce sanctuaire à Eléphantine-la-forteresse; lorsque Cambyse entra en Egypte, il trouva ce sanctuaire construit; et les sanctuaires des dieux des Egyptiens, on les saccagea tous, et personne n ' e n d o m m a g e a rien dans ce s a n c t u a i r e - l à " .6 8
Even if there is some exaggeration in this report, we can assume that the Persians indeed committed acts of violence against Egyptian temples.6 9 The letter is sometimes understood as a reference to the devastation of the Egyptian temples by C a m b y s e s ,7 0 but the text does not lead directly to such a conclusion.
There is no data on why the Persians destroyed Egyptian temples. Pos-sibly strife and revolts in Egypt, not always strictly against the Persians as a matter of f a c t ,7 1 should be considered in this respect. In similarity to the Persians, rebelling Egyptians could have used the temples as fortified places of resistance, effectively leading to the destruction of the b u i l d i n g s .7 2
6 7 R.O. FAULKNER, The Bremner-Rhind Papyrus (Brit. Mus. 10188), Brussels 1933
(= Bibl. Aeg. 3). The translation here slightly differs form that of R.O. FAULKNER, JEA 23, 1937, 11.
6 8 A. COWLEY, Aramaic Papyri in the Fifth Century B.C., Oxford 1923, no. 30, 12-13. Translation by P. GRELOT, Documents araméens d'Egypte, Paris 1972, no. 102.
I cannot share the opinion of B. PORTEN, Archives from Elephantine, Berkeley -Los A n g e l e s 1968, 291, that this fragment of text was "apparently little more than po-pular Egyptian propaganda against the Persians".
7 0 E.g. R . DE V A U X , RB 4 6 , 1 9 3 7 , 3 6 .
7 1 P. BRIANT, op. cit., (η. 4 0 ) , 139-143 notes that often the cause o f revolts were taxes introduced by the invaders.
7 2 Examples o f actions o f this kind are found in sources from the Ptolemaic period. In the Rosetta decree ( O G I S 9 0 ) issued in 196, the priests congratulate Ptolemy V
