Zdzisław Szymański
Problems of Production and National
Wealth in Henryk Kamieński’s
Economic Theory
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska. Sectio H, Oeconomia 18,
199-220
A N N A L E S
U N I V E R S I T A T I S M A R I A E C U R I E - S K Ł O D O W S K A
L U B L I N — P O L O N I A
VOL. X V III, 11 SECTIO E 1984
Z a k ła d H is to r ii G o sp o d a r c z e j i M y śli E k o n o m ic z n e j W y d z ia ł E k o n o m ic z n y U M CS
Z d z i s ł a w S Z Y M A Ń S K I
Problem s of Production and National W ealth in H enryk Kamiei'iski’s Economic Theory
P roblem y produkcji i bogactw a narodow ego w teorii ekonom icznej H enryka K am ieńskiego
Проблемы производства и национального богатства в экономической теории Х енрика Каменьского
A m ong th e m ost d is tin g u ish e d re p re s e n ta tiv e s of P o lish socio-econo- m ic th o u g h t of th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y th e m o st p ro m in e n t fig u re w as u n d o u b te d ly th a t of H e n ry k K a m ień sk i (1813— 1866), a u th o r of a tw o - -v o lu m e w o rk T h e P h ilo so p h y of Material E c o n o m y ■ of H u m a n S o ciety , p u b lish e d an o n y m o u sly in P o z n a ń in 1843 an d 1845. R e fe rrin g to H e g el’s id ealistic p h ilo so p h y on th e one h a n d and, on th e o th er, to th e c o n c ep tio n s of W est E u ro p e an u to p ia n socialism in E n g lan d a n d F ra n c e , he a im e d at c o n stru c tin g a g en e ral, sy n th e tic p hiloso p h ical sy ste m w h ich h e called a p h ilo so p h y of m a te ria l econom y. T he co m b in atio n of p h ilo so p h y and m a te ria l eco n o m y ,1 th a t is, a science d ealin g w ith th e p h e n o m e n a ta k in g place in th e econom ic process, w as to en a b le h im to
disco-1 In K a m ień sk i’s approach the concept of econom ics as a scien ce corresponds to a certain general body of kn ow led ge about society. He divides it in to m oral, m aterial, and p olitical econom ies. In K am ien sk i’s system of social sciences m oral econ om y is a kind of scien ce about social id eologies, w h ile p olitical econom y corresponds in its scope to the theory of social developm ent. The nam e of m aterial econ om y is g iv en by K am ieński to this field of scien ce w hich w as trad ition ally called p olitical econom y. See H. K a m i e ń s k i : Filozofia ekon om ii m a t e r i a ln e j l u d z k ie g o sp o ł e c z e ń s t w a z d o d a n ie m m n i e js z y c h p is m filo zofic znych (The P hilosophy of M ateria l E con om y of H u m an S o c ie t y w i t h an A d d it io n of M inor Philo so phical W ritings). W arszaw a 1959, pp. 5 and 40—41. One sh ou ld em phasize th e fact th at K a m ień sk i’? term inology has not becom e accepted in P olish literature,
200 Z. S zy m a ń sk i
v e r th e e sse n tia l p rin c ip le of th e m e c h a n ism of socio-econom ic d ev e lo p m e n t a n d c re a te a basis to p e rc e iv e so ciety as a s u p ra -in d iv id u a l w hole, th e d y n am ics of its d e v e lo p m e n t, s tru c tu re , an d fo rm s of in te rh u m a n r e latio n s.
A n a ly z in g th e p h ilo so p h y of eco no m y in th e f ir s t p a r t of his w o rk K a m ie ń s k i h ad to g e t e n ta n g le d in q u ite a d e ta ile d c h a ra c te riz a tio n of econom ic ca te g o ries. T he a n a ly sis co v ers th e ca te g o ries of b o th cap i ta lis t econom y a n d th o se of th e m od el sy ste m of social ju s tic e b ase d on s m a ll p ro p e rty w h ic h h e co n stru c te d . T h e ca te g o rie s of th e so cially ju s t sy ste m w e re m e re ly a m o d ified re fle c tio n of th e an a ly sis of th e ac tu a l c a p ita lis t sy stem . T h e c h a ra c te ris tic s c o n c ern th e p ro b lem s of p ro d u c tio n a n d n a tio n a l w e a lth as w e ll as th e d is trib u tio n of th e goods p rod uced.
A cco rd in g to K a m ień sk i, th e p ro p e r o b je c t of th e science of econo m ics co n cern s th e m a te r ia l fu n c tio n s of th e society , i.e. p ro d u c tio n an d ex c h an g e. T hese a r e social fu n c tio n s b ecau se econom ic p ro cesses m ay ta k e p lace o n ly w ith in ‘th e society ; a t th e sam e tim e K a m ie ń sk i calls th e m m a te r ia l fu n c tio n s sin ce th e aim s th e y a re to se rv e co n c ern th e m a te r ia l e x iste n c e of th e society. C o n s titu tin g ” (...) a m u tu a l ex c h an g e of serv ic es b e tw e e n p e o p le ” , p ro d u c tio n a n d e x c h a n g e a re b o u n d to each o th e r b y th e tie s of d ep e n d e n c e s w h ic h a re of th e c a u s e -a n d -e ffe c t ch a r a c te r a n d th u s th e y c o n s titu te an econom ic fo u n d a tio n fo r th e ex isten c e of th e so ciety as a so c io -p ro d u c tiv e o rg a n is m .2
A s an eco n o m ist K a m ie ń sk i is in te re s te d in th e p ro b le m s of p ro d u c tion, d is trib u tio n a n d e x c h a n g e b u t, ap p ro a c h in g th e c a te g o ry of e x c h a n ge a h isto ric a lly , h e id e n tifie s it w ith d is trib u tio n . T h e o b je c t of p o litica l eco n o m y w as s im ila rly p e rc e iv e d b y A d am S m ith an d so m e w h a t d iffe r e n tly b y J. B. S ay , since th e l a t t e r d iv id ed econom ics in to th re e p a rts , n a m e ly , th e th e o ry of p ro d u c tio n , th e o ry of d is trib u tio n , an d th e o ry of co n su m p tio n .
A p a rt fro m ta k in g o v er so m e e le m e n ts fro m S a y ’s te rm in o lo g y of eco n o m ic p h en o m en a , K a m ie ń s k i’s co n cep tio n of th e science of econom ics is e s se n tia lly d iffe re n t. C o n tra ry to S ay , K a m ie ń sk i is n o t so m u c h in te re s te d in th e p ro b le m s of e q u ilib riu m as in th o se of econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t. F o r th a t re a s o n h e tr e a ts th e econom ic pro cesses of p ro d u c tio n a n d ex c h a n g e as pro cesses ta k in g p lace w ith in d e te rm in e d social co n d i tio n s w h o se basis is to be fo u n d in th e c h a n g in g fo rm s of th e o w n e r sh ip of th e p ro d u c tio n m e a n s.3
2 K a m i e ń s k i : op. cit., pp. 163 and 173— 174.
3 Z. S z y m a ń s k i : P r z e d m i o t i rola e k o n o m ii p o li ty c z n e j w s y s t e m i e n au k w u ję c iu H e n r y k a K a m i e ń s k i e g o i Józefa S u p iń s k ie g o (The S u b je c t and Role of P o litical E co n o m y in th e S y s t e m of Scien ces according to H e n r y k K a m i e ń s k i and J ó z e f Supiń ski), Ainn. U n iv. M ariae C u rie-S k ło d o w sk a , se e tio H, L ublin 1979/1980, p. 2:19,
P roblem s of Production and N ation al W ealth
201
1. SOURCES A N D FACTORS OF INCREASING WEALTHA n a lo g ica lly to S m ith ’s concep tion in A n I n q u i r y into th e N a tu re and Causes of t h e W e a lth of Nations, K a m ień sk i re g a rd s w o rk as th e o n ly fa c to r p ro d u c in g w e a lth . In volu m e II of T h e P h ilo s o p h y of M aterial E c o n o m y h e states: ’’H u m a n w o rk cre a te s w e a lth w h ich ca n n o t re s u lt fro m a n y th in g else” ; a n d hence ’’T he p ro p e rty o r com m on w e a lth of all h u m a n k in d is e v e ry th in g c a p tu re d fro m th e s u rro u n d in g m a tte r, tu rn e d to u se an d tra n s f o rm e d ”.4
S im ila rly to S ay an d S ism ondi K a m ień sk i does n o t in clu d e fre e goods (sun, air) in to th e w e a lth of a n a tio n , th o u g h h e is a w a re of th e fa c t th a t th e y a re n e c e ssa ry fo r m a n ’s ex isten c e b y se rv in g d e fin ite h u m a n needs. T he c o n su m p tio n of fre e goods, h ow ever, does n o t re q u ire a p rio r e x p e n d itu re of h u m a n la b o u r and th e re fo re th e y ca n n o t be re g a rd e d as an o b je c t of d is trib u tio n an d ex change. F o r th ese re aso n s fre e goods do n o t e n te r th e field of in te re s t of social sciences, h a v in g n o re le v a n c e to, o r in flu e n c e on, th e n a tu r e of social re la tio n s .5
A cco rd in g to K a m ie ń sk i th e c a te g o ry of n a tio n a l w e a lth focuses in itse lf all h u m a n n ee d s w h ic h it is to serve. A n d since th e scope of h u m an n e e d s ch an g es alo n g w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e society, th e c a te g o ry of w e a lth ac q u ire s fe a tu re s of a h isto ric a l categ o ry , in v o lv in g th e n e e d of f u r th e r sp ec ia liz atio n an d division of lab o u r, th e n e c e ssity of c re a tin g n e w p ro fessio n s an d b ra n c h e s of p ro d u c tio n . T h ese g ro w in g an d v a rie d h u m a n n eed s re q u ire n o t o n ly changes in th e size an d p ro p o rtio n s of p ro d u c tio n , w h ich is re fle c te d in th e m a g n itu d e an d m a te ria l s tr u c tu re of th e w e a lth of a g iv en co u n try , b u t also fa r re a c h in g tra n s f o rm a tio n s of social re la tio n s .6
A t th is p o in t th e re arise s a q u e stio n w h e th e r e v e ry w o rk is p ro d u c tiv e a n d c o n trib u tin g to n a tio n a l w e a lth . As is w e ll k n o w n , th e p ro b le m w as d e a lt w ith q u ite e x te n siv e ly b y A dam S m ith a n d J e a n -B a p tis te S ay. In co m p ariso n to S m ith , S a y w id en s th e co ncept of p ro d u c tiv e w o rk . T re a tin g th e p ro d u c tio n process as a process of c re a tio n an d e x p a n sio n
4 K a m i e ń s k i : op. cit., p. 193. C ontrary to Ricard, K am ień sk i doeis not d istin gu ish the concepts of valu e and m agnitude (in its q u an titative aspect) of social w ealth . He is in terested only in the m aterial m agnitude and structure of w ealth . The structure changes under the in flu en ce of foreign trade, so th at the produced w ea lth differs in resp ect to m aterial structure from the w ea lth intended for d istri bution; it is the latter th at he calls national w ealth. Ibid., pp. 298—299.
5 Ibid., pp. 193—'194.
6 Ibid., pp. 195—'196. This th esis resu lts lo g ica lly from H enryk K a m ieh sk i’s theory of socio-econ om ic d evelop m en t in w h ich m aterialistic elem en ts predom inate.
202
Z. S zym ań sk iof u tility , S a y co n sid ers as p ro d u c tiv e each w o rk g e n e ra tin g an d in c re a sin g u tility .7
In th e fie ld of th e c r ite r ia of th e p ro d u c tiv ity of w o rk K a m ie h s k i’s a ttitu d e is n o t c le a rly sp ecified. R e fe rrin g to S a y ’s co n cep tio n h e w rite s th a t ’’w o rk m e a n s serv ic es p ro v id e d to th e so ciety to fu lfil its n e e d s” so t h a t ” (...) all a c ts th a t b e a r th a t q u a lity sh o u ld be in c lu d e d in th e re a lm of la b o u r.” Y et, if th e F re n c h eco n o m ist id e n tifie s la b o u r p ro d u c tiv ity w ith its u tility fo r th e society, K a m ie ń sk i in tro d u c e s h e re som e m o d ificatio n s. S o cially u se fu l la b o u r ”(...) is n o t h e re lim ite d to th e v e ry w re s tlin g w ith m a t t e r ” , a n d th u s n e e d n o t be p ro d u c tiv e w o rk . ”An a rtis t, a sc h o la r a n d a n y b o d y d e v o tin g his tim e to c u ltiv a te th e s p ir it” — w e re a d in T h e P h ilo s o p h y of M aterial E c o n o m y — ’’tr u ly w o rk s. A n d th e scale a g a in st w h ic h its w o rth can be m e a s u re d is th e im p o rta n c e of th e serv ic es th u s re n d e re d to th e s o c ie ty ” .8
T h e re fo re , ac co rd in g to K a m ie ń s k i n o n -p ro d u c tiv e la b o u r is also so cia lly u se fu l as long as it fu lfils th e s p iritu a l n ee d s of m an . On th e o th e r h an d , as his s ta te m e n ts q u o te d ab ove in d ic a te th e p ro d u c tio n sp h e re in clu d es th o se d o m ain s of p e o p le ’s c re a tiv e a c tiv itie s w h ich are co n n ected w ith th e ir e ffe c t on n a tu r e an d w ith th e p ro d u c tio n of m a te r ia l m ean s s a tisfy in g h u m a n needs. P ro p o sin g s ta te m e n ts of th is k in d K a m ień sk i w as w e ll in a d v a n c e of th e econom ic th o u g h t of his tim es. A t th is p o in t his id eas coincide w ith th o se of M arx c o n ta in e d in v o lu m e I of T h e C a p ita l.9
I t is p e rh a p s c h a ra c te ris tic th a t K a m ie ń sk i also in clu d es ed u catio n in th e do m ain of p ro d u c tio n . T his co n c ep t he p ro b a b ly too k o v er fro m S m ith w ho h a d c le a rly p e rc e iv e d th a t e x p e n d itu re s on e d u c atio n a re p ro d u c tiv e fro m th e p o in t of view of th e c o u n try , w h ile th e p ro fessio n al k n o w led g e an d sk ills of th e citizen s c o n s titu te a p a r t of th e w e a lth of th e so c ie ty .10 T he sam e ideas a r e fo u n d in H e n ry k K a m ie h s k i’s p rin c ip a l w ork, T h e P h ilo s o p h y of M aterial E co n o m y. T he p o w e r of m a n (i.e. p ro d u c tiv e forces — Z. Sz.) — K a m ie ń sk i w rite s — ”is in d ire c t p ro p o r
7 J. B. S a y : T r a k t a t o e k o n o m i i p o li ty c z n e j, c zy li p r o s ty w y k ł a d sposobu, w ja k i się tw o r z ą , r o z d z ie l a ją i s p o ż y w a j ą b o g a c tw a (T ra ité d ’économ ie politique), W arszaw a I960, pp. 184— 188.
8 K a m i e ń s k i : op. cit., pp. 181— 183.
9 K. M a r x : K a p i t a ł (Das K a p ita ł), v ol. I, W arszaw a 1951, p. 188. M arx w rites there: ’’W ork is first of a ll a procefes tak in g place b etw een m an and nature, a p ro cess in w hich, through his a ctiv ity , m an realizes, regu lates, and controls the e x ch a n g e of m atter w ith nature. He ju x ta p o ses h im self to n ature as a natural fo rce.”
10 A. S m i t h : Badania n ad n atu rą i p r z y c z y n a m i b o g a c tw a n a r o d ó w (An I n q u ir y in t o th e N a tu r e and Causes of the W e a lth of Nations). W arszaw a 1954, vol. I, pp, 347— 348,
P roblem s of Production and N ation al W ealth
203
tio n to his s p iritu a l e d u c a tio n ” a n d ”(...) th e sto u tn e ss of w o rk, e ffe c ti v en ess of m u tu a l serv ic es b e tw e e n people, d ep en d s d ire c tly on i t ” .11
A d am S m ith saw th e g re a tn e ss of th e c o u n try ’s w e a lth as d e p e n d e n t on tw o m ain fa c to rs, th e n u m b e r of th e em p lo y ed in p ro d u c tiv e fields of econom y an d th e efficien cy of lab o u r. O f th e se tw o fa cto rs, h e p laced on th e firs t place th e efficien cy of w o rk w h ich — in his o pinion — d e te rm in e d th e d eg ree of la b o u r division am on g p ro d u cers.
In com p ariso n to S m ith , K a m ie ń sk i d eep en s an d en ric h es th is tr a in of th o u g h t w ith se v e ra l n ew elem e n ts. F ir s t of all, th e a u th o r of T h e P h ilo s o p h y of Material E c o n o m y in d icates d ep e n d en ces w h ich o btain b e tw e e n th e n u m b e r of th e em p lo y ed an d th e efficien cy of w o rk , on th e one. h a n d , an d on th e o th e r — th e c h a ra c te r of th e social sy stem . He also p ays a tte n tio n to th e fa ct th a t, ’’b rin g in g services to th e w h o le com p a n y ” , w o rk is a d u ty of e v e ry m an , w ith o u t exceptio ns, w ho p a r tic i p a te s in th e' d is trib u tio n of th e m a te ria l goods p rod uced. N e v e rth e le ss, th e society sh o u ld e n s u re th e p o ssib ility of p erfo rm in g th is d u ty by a p p ro p ria te re m u n e ra tio n fo r w o rk p e rfo rm e d an d it sho u ld g u a ra n te e th e r ig h t to w o rk fo r all p eo p le.12
T h e con d itio n s w h ich w o u ld e n s u re a su ccessfu l in c re a se in th e e ffi cien cy of p ro d u c tio n an d a p p ro p ria te in cre ase in e m p lo y m e n t do n o t e x ist in social sy ste m s b ased on th e ex p lo ita tio n of m an b y m an. B ecause of th e u n ju s t p rin c ip le s of th e d istrib u tio n of p ro d u c ed w e a lth in a n ta g o n istic sy ste m s th e p riv ile g e d classes are fro m th e d u ty to w o rk w h ich a u to m a tic a lly d ecrea ses th e n u m b e r of th e em p loyed; in case of ’’in d i r e c t” com pulsion, i.e. in th e c a p ita list m a n n e r of p ro d u c tio n , th e w o r k in g classes a re n o t g u a ra n te e d th e rig h t to w o rk . H ow ev er, th e sy stem of social ju stic e c re a te s n e w possibilities, so fa r u n k n o w n , to in c re a se th e w e a lth of th e co u n try . In th is sy ste m w o rk becom es th e o nly m ean s of a c q u irin g d e fin ite goods as o n e’s ow n p ro p e rty an d a t th e sam e tim e s tro n g in c e n tiv e s to in c re a se th e efficien cy of w o rk are s e t in o p eratio n . T he in c re a se in th e efficien cy of w o rk , acco rd in g to K a m ień sk i, w ill o cc u r th a n k s to fa c to rs w h ic h w ill ch ange m a n ’s a ttitu d e to w a rd th e la b o u r p e rfo rm e d . A p a rt fro m th e p erso n al in te re s t of th e p ro d u c e r th e re w ill a p p e a r a m o tiv e in th e fo rm of th e v e ry w ill to w o rk , m a k in g th a t w o rk an a ttra c tiv e a c tiv ity an d an aim in itself.
In K a m ie h sk i’s th e o ry th e re are th u s tw o ty p e s of m o tiv es fo r u n d e r ta k in g w ork, p e rso n a l in te re s t an d in c e n tiv e s of a h ig h e r n a tu r e — ’’th e w o rk of v o c a tio n ” . T he w o rk of ’’v o c a tio n ” , re s u ltin g fro m s p iritu a l im p u lses, fro m th e ’’in s tin c t to w o rk ” as it w as d esc rib ed by M a rx an d
11 K a m i e ń s k i : op. cit., p. 290, 12 Ibid., pp. 178—179.
2 0 4 Z. Szym ań sk i
u to p ia n socialists, co n ta in s in its e lf a re w a rd an d in th e h ie ra rc h y of v a lu e s it sta n d s ab o v e w o rk w h o se m o tiv e is th e w o r k e r ’s ow n in te r e s t.13 K a m ie ń sk i th in k s t h a t in f u r th e r p e rsp e c tiv e th e w o rk of ’’voca tio n ” w ill lead to a fo rm a tio n of q u a lita tiv e ly n e w an d m o re h u m a n e in te rh u m a n re la tio n s.
T a k in g in to c o n sid e ra tio n b o th so cial a n d econom ic asp e cts K a m ie ń sk i e v a lu a te s th e w o rk fro m s p iritu a l im p u lse s m o re h ig h ly th a n th a t u n d e r ta k e n w ith in te n t of m a te r ia l p ro fits. T he l a tte r is n e v e r lik e ly to b rin g su c h re s u lts w h ic h a re ac h ie v e d by th e w o rk w h ic h is an aim in itself. H ence, th e s tro n g e r th e vo catio n a ffe c ts th e la b o u r p e rfo rm e d , th e g re a te r th e in c re a se in th e efficien cy of w o rk an d th e m o re su c c e ssfu lly m an c o n q u e rs n a tu r e a ro u n d h im .14
T hus, th e effic ie n c y of w o rk its ’’s to u tn e s s ” , ^ a K a m ień sk i calls it, d ep e n d s on th e c h a ra c te r of social re la tio n s. A c co rd in g to K a m ie ń sk i th is d e p e n d e n c e is also re v e a le d in th e w h o le h is to ry of h u m a n society. H e w rite s: ” (...) T he p ro g re ss of w o rk can be ac h ie v e d by no o th e r m ean s th a n b y th e p e rfe c tio n of social re la tio n s .” T h e sh a p in g of m o re ju s t social re la tio n s or th e p assag e fro m a lo w e r socio-econom ic fo rm a tio n to a h ig h e r one n o t o n ly c re a te s s tim u li fo r in c re a se in th e efficien cy of w o rk b u t it also d e e p e n s th e divisio n of la b o u r w ith in th e so ciety. In th is do m ain p ro g ress is a re fle c tio n of p o sitiv e ch a n g es ta k in g place in social re la tio n s .15
T he social c h a ra c te r of p ro d u c tio n also in d ic a te s th e n e c e ss ity of sp ec ia liz atio n or div isio n in to sp ecial jobs. S till, th is d iv isio n h a s its lim its. O n th e lo w e r stag es of th e d e v e lo p m e n t of h u m a n so ciety, a t a re la tiv e ly low le v e l of th e d e v e lo p m e n t of p ro d u c tio n fo rces, it is in co n c eiv ab le to im a g in e th e e x iste n c e of sp ec ia liz ed p ro fessio n s a n d do
13 Ibid., pp. 183— 184. The p rin cip le of a ttra ctiv en ess of w ork w a s m ade a basis of the organization of p roduction in a fu tu re sy stem by th e F rench utopian socia list, C harles Fourier. C f. W. P. W o ł g i n: P o p r z e d n i c y n a u k o w e g o s o cja lizm u (The P r e d e c e s s o r s of S c ie n t if ic Socia lism). W arszaw a 1958, p. 257.
14 K a m i e ń s k i : op. cit,, pp. 186— 187. In th e light of the sta tem en ts quoted above one cannot agree w ith the opinion of St. F ilip o w icz ex p ressed in his intro du ction to a s e le c tio n of H. K a m ie ń sk i’s w irtin g s, nam ely, th at ’’K am ień sk i appears to be a thinker o b jectin g a gain st u topian ten d en cies w h ich so stron gly stood out in his contem porary tim es.” O bviously, the m odel of social ju stice proposed by him and b ased on sm all property, in con seq u en ce of th e p olarizin g operation of the law of valu e, w ou ld lead to the form ation of ca p ita list relation s of production; n e v e r th eless, one should th in k that th e an a ly sis of the contents of The P h ilo so p h y of M a te ria l E co n o m y does n ot ju stify a th esis that K a m ień sk i ex p ressed ’’...approval of the bourgeois sy ste m .” Comp. St. F i l i p o w i c z : In tr o d u c ti o n to H e n r y k K a m ień sk i. P o s tę p to ż ycie. W ybór pism . (Progreisis is L ife, A S electio n of W ritings), W arszaw a 11980, pp. X X X I—« X X I I I .
Problem s of Production and N ation al W e a lt h ..
205
m a in s of p ro d u c tio n . A long w ith th e g ro w th of th e size of p ro d u c tio n an d d e v e lo p m e n t.o f good s-ex ch an g e re la tio n s, th e re occurs f u r th e r d iv i sion of la b o u r, th e a p p e a ra n c e of n e w professions, and, in consequence, a f u r th e r rise in th e efficien cy of w ork. T he p ro g ress of w o rk m ak es m a n ’s la b o u r lig h te r, a t th e sam e tim e p ro v id in g p eop le w ith fu lle r s a tisfa c tio n of th e ir n ee d s.16
In co m p ariso n to S m ith , K am ień sk i, w ritin g se v e ra l decades la te r, did n o t a tta c h su ch a g re a t im p o rta n c e to th e divisio n of la b o u r as a fa c to r d e te rm in in g its efficiency. A t th e sam e tim e h e reco g n ized th e sig n ific a n t causes of th e in c re a se in th e p ro d u c tio n forces of la b o u r b e t te r th a n th e a u th o r of T h e W e a lth of Nations. S m ith s ta te s th a t th e d e g re e of th e division of la b o u r m u s t alw a y s be lim ite d b y th e scope of ex c h a n g e o r th e c a p a c ity of th e m a rk e t. S im u lta n e o u s ly re co g n izin g in th e d ivision of la b o u r a d ire c t cause of th e in cre ase of th e efficien cy of w o rk , h e also s e p a ra te s th is p ro b lem fro m th e w h ole sy ste m of socio- -econom ic re la tio n s tre a te d a h isto ric a lly .17
C o n tra ry to A dam S m ith , H e n ry k K a m ień sk i looks fo r th e o rig in a l so u rc es of th e in c re a se of th e p ro d u c tio n fo rce of la b o u r in th e d ialectics of th e in te rc o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l lev el of p ro d u c tio n forces an d th e c h a ra c te r of social re la tio n s. F ro m th e se th e o re tic a l assu m p tio n s h e d ra w s d e fin ite , p ra c tic a l p o stu lates. In his a rtic le A C o m pa ra tive S t u d y in P auperism , p u b lish ed in 1843 in ’’P rz e g lą d N a u k o w y ” (’’S cience R e v ie w ”), he w ro te a b o u t th e low efficien cy of la b o u r in P o lish a g r ic u ltu r e a n d in d ic a te d th a t th e m a in cause of th a t s ta te of a ffa irs w as to be fo u n d in th e o ld -fa sh io n e d se rfd o m -m a n o ria l re la tio n s, still e x istin g in P o la n d . T h e y h a r m f u lly a ffe c te d n o t o n ly th e re v e n u e s ob ta in e d b y th e g e n try b u t also th e liv in g con ditio ns of th e p e a sa n t p o p u latio n ; hence, th e g e n e ra l im p o v e ris h m e n t an d th e low s ta te of e d u c a tio n am o n g p e a sa n ts in P o la n d . G e n e ra l p a u p e rism in low social s tra ta , p a r tic u la r ly a c u te in th e case of th e w o rk in g classes also o c c u rre d in in d u stria liz e d c o u n trie s of W e ste rn E urope, in E n g lan d an d F ra n c e . H o w ev er, if ”(...) fo reig n p o v e rty is a g ra v e disease of th e w ho le social sy ste m an d c a n n o t be c u re d w ith o u t h ig h ly co m p licated m e a su re s (...)” > th e p o v e rty of th e P o lish p e a sa n t, as a conseq u en ce of th e fe u d a l e x p lo i ta tio n a n d la c k of in te re s t in th e effec ts of lab o u r, could ea sily be e li m in a te d by e n fra n c h is e m e n t.18
U n d o u b te d ly , K a m ień sk i o v e re stim a te s th e ro le of p e a sa n t e n f r a n ch ise m e n t as a fa c to r w h ic h could d y n a m ic a lly effec t an in cre ase in th e
16 Ibid., pp. 190— 192.
17 S m i t h : op. cit., vol. I, pp. 11— 12 and 20— 25.
18 H. K a m i e ń s k i : O b r a z p o r ó w n a w c z y p a u p e r y z m u (A C o m p a r a t iv e S t u d y in P a u p eris m ) (in:) Filozofia e k o n o m ii m aterialnej... pp. 373—375.
2 0 6 Ż. Szym ań sk i
c o u n try ’s p ro d u c tiv ity . In th is h e re v e a ls his n a iv e o p tim ism , c h a ra c te ri stic of m a n y W e st E u ro p e a n u to p ia n so cialists w ho, lik e him self, b e lie ved th a t a c h a n g e of th e social sy ste m a n d th e e s ta b lish m e n t of m o re ju s t re la tio n s of p ro d u c tio n w o u ld lead w ith in a s h o rt p e rio d of tim e to h u g e in c re a se in th e effic ie n c y of la b o u r w hich, in tu rn , w o u ld allow th e fu lfillm e n t of all th e e ss e n tia l n e e d s of th e p o p u la tio n .19 C o n tra ry to F rid ric h L ist, G e rm a n eco no m ist w ritin g a b o u t th a t sam e tim e, K a m ie ń sk i did n o t u n d e r s ta n d th a t th e liq u id a tio n of th e econom ic b a c k w a rd n e s s of P o la n d n e e d e d n o t o n ly tra n s fo rm a tio n s of social re la tio n s b u t also an a c tiv e a n d lo n g -te rm econom ic p olicy of th e sta te .
W ritin g in th e m a n u fa c to ry sta g e of c a p ita lis m A d am S m ith e x a g g e ra te d th e ro le of th e d ivision of la b o u r as an in c e n tiv e fo r th e in cre ase in th e efficien cy of w o rk, w h ile u n d e re s tim a tin g th e im p o rta n c e of te c h n ological pro g ress. K a m ie ń sk i loo ked a t th e p ro b le m d iffe re n tly . He w as a g re a t e n th u s ia s t of tec h n o lo g ic a l pro g ress. H e w as co n v in ced th a t ’’p ro g re ss in th e im p le m e n ts of w o rk ” w as th e fa c to r w h ic h d ec rea sed m a n ’s p h y sical to il a n d q u ic k ly allo w ed an in c re a se in efficien cy . T ec h n ological p ro g ress also ch a n g ed th e s tr u c tu r e of em p lo y m e n t a n d tr a n s fo rm e d th e m a n n e r of p e rfo rm in g a job. In sp ite of m a n y n e g a tiv e con seq u e n ces b ro u g h t a b o u t b y th e im p le m e n ta tio n of n e w techn o lo g ies of p ro d u c tio n , K a m ie ń sk i looked o p tim is tic a lly a t th e p e rs p e c tiv e of econo m ic d e v e lo p m e n t b ase d on in c re a s e d e m p lo y m e n t a n d tech n o lo g ical ad v an ces. H e did n o t a g re e w ith S is m o n d i’s id eas w ho, fo r th e sak e of th e p rin c ip le of p ro p o rtio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t, a p p e a le d fo r slo w in g dow n th e r a te of s p re a d in g tech n o lo g ica l in n o v a tio n s. K a m ie ń sk i w rite s th a t S ism o n d i’s su g g estio n , a lth o u g h d ic ta te d b y n o b le in te n tio n s , is n o t a v a lid so lu tio n ” (...) b ec a u se it w o u ld n o t do to p u ll b ack o r h in d e r in d u s try ; in ste a d it sh o u ld be d ire c te d in su ch a w a y th a t, w ith o u t in h ib itin g its sto u tn e ss , it is n o t allo w ed to h a rm a n y b o d y ”.20
T h is fa sc in a tio n w ith n e w tech n o lo g y of p ro d u c tio n fits w e ll th e g e n e ra l a ttitu d e of K a m ie ń sk i, a s u p p o rte r of p ro g re ss in all th e do m ain s of social and econom ic life.
So fa r th e a n a ly s is of K a m ie ń s k i’s c a te g o ry of w e a lth h as n o t ta k e n in to ac co u n t th e ro le of fo reig n tra d e . Y et, in te rn a tio n a l ex c h a n g e m o d i fies th e m a te ria l s tr u c tu r e of th e w e a lth p ro d u c e d in a given c o u n try .
19 E.g. counting on rapid in crease in the e ffic ie n c y of labour a fter an introduc tion of the system of social ju stice R obert O w en w a s p rophesying th at w ith in coop eratives the d ivision of th e consum ption funds w ou ld take p lace on the p rin ciple of needs. Comp. J. G ó r s k i : R o b e r t O w e n — w d w u s e t n ą ro cznic ę u rodz in ( R o l e i l O wen: The B ic e n t e n a r y of His Birth), S p ółd zielczy K w artaln ik N aukow y, no. 4, W arszaw a 1971, p. 8.
P roblem s of Production and N ation al W e a lth ...
207
The w e a lth of th e n a tio n in clu d es b o th th e goods w h ich th e so ciety p ro duces by its ow n w o rk an d also th o se w h ic h it o b tain s b y w a y of e x ch a n g e w ith o th e r n atio n s. D ue to its g eo g rap h ical lo catio n and n a tu r a l co nditio ns each n a tio n h as c e rta in ’’so urces of w e a lth ” a t its disposal. F o r a given c o u n try th e y d e te rm in e a p ro p e r sp ecializatio n of p ro d u c tio n w hose co n séquence is ”(...) a n a tu r a l division of la b o u r am on g n a tio n s ” , w h ic h m ak es possible a f u lle r u tiliz a tio n of n a tu r a l reso urces. T hus, K a m ień sk i concludes, in te rn a tio n a l e x c h an g e jo in s in d iv id u a l n a tio n s in to one p ro d u c tiv e c o m m u n ity an d a t th e sam e tim e it m u ltip lie s social w e a lth .
It is c h a ra c te ris tic th a t, as a re p re s e n ta tiv e of an eco no m ically b a c k w a rd c o u n try , K a m ie ń sk i a p p e a rs to sp eak fo r u n re s tr ic te d co m p etitio n in fo re ig n tra d e since, in his opinion, it cond itio n s th e g ro w th of global w e a lth . He w rite s th a t p ro te c tio n is t policy c o n tra d ic ts th e idea of ’’u n ity am o n g p e o p le ” an d it is c o n tra ry to th e te n d e n c y to th e d e v e lo p m e n t of h u m a n k in d as a s u p ra -n a tio n a l e n tity . A ll n a tio n s in h a b itin g th e e a r th w ill th e n be ab le to re a c h econom ic p ro s p e rity w h e n in te rn a tio n a l econom ic re la tio n s a re fre e d fro m all obstacles set by th e g o v e rn m e n ts of p a r tic u la r s ta te s .21
P ro p a g a tin g th e slogans of econom ic lib e ra lism in in te rn a tio n a l re la tio n s K a m ie ń sk i w as a s tra n g e r to th e ideas of a p ro te c tiv e ta riff s s y ste m an d a c tiv e econom ic policy of th e sta te , th a t is, to id eas p ro c la im e d a t th a t tim e b y L ist in G e rm an y . K a m ie h sk i’s specific a ttitu d e w as co n d itio n ed by m a n y facto rs.
F ir s t of all, as a s u p p o rte r of th e d e v e lo p m e n t of n a tio n a l p ro d u c tio n forces, L ist w as re fle c tin g th e in te re s ts of G e rm a n bourgeoisie. B ecause of th e econom ic u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t of G e rm a n y in th e firs t h a lf of th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , G e rm a n bourgeoisie w as in te re s te d in o b ta in in g th e in te r n a l p ro te c tio n of th e cu stom s w h ic h w o u ld fa c ilita te a d e v e lo p m e n t of th e still w e a k in d u s try of th e c o u n try . It is e v id e n t th a t, acco rd in g to L ist, th e g ro w th of n a tio n a l p ro d u c tio n fo rces in G e rm a n y , a c c e le ra te d by th e activ e econom ic po licy of th e sta te , w o u ld ta k e p lace w ith in th e c a p ita listic p ro d u c tio n re la tio n s w h ic h w o u ld e lim in a te th e o b stacles of th e still e x istin g re m n a n ts of feudalism .
• 21 K a m i e ń s k i : Filozofia e k o n o m ii m aterialnej..., pp. 300— 301. T hese are echoes of the doctrine of S ain t-S im on ian s w ho aspired to the organization of the so ciety not w ith in one country, as S ain t-S im on origin ally assum ed, but on the global scale. A ccording to them in the u n iversal association there w ould be no an tagon ism s since the e x p lo ita tio n of m an by m an w ould be u ltim ately su b stitu ted by the p eacefu l ex p lo ita tio n of natural resources. Comp. fc. L i p i ń s k i : H istoria p o w s z e c h n a m y ś l i eko n o m ic zn e j do roku 1870 (H istory of W orld Economic T hought until 1870). W arszaw a 1968, p. 452.
2 0 8 Z. S zym ań sk i
C o n tra ry to L ist, K a m ie ń s k i assu m ed th a t in P o la n d , w h e re fe u d a l re la tio n s still p re d o m in a te d in th e eig h te e n fo rtie s, econom ic g ro w th w o u ld ta k e p lace u n d e r th e co n d itio n s of a n ew sy stem . As h e w ro te in T h e C o m p a r a tiv e S t u d y of P a u p e r is m , th e v e ry a b o lish m e n t of se rfd o m - -m a n o ria l re la tio n s w o u ld b y itse lf le a d to a s ig n ific a n t in c re a s e in th e e fficien cy of la b o u r in a g ric u ltu r e an d th u s e lim in a te th e p o v e rty p re d o m in a tin g in P o lish v illag es. A c co rd in g to K a m ień sk i, a s till q u ic k e r d e v e lo p m e n t of p ro d u c tio n fo rces w o u ld occu r w ith th e re a liz a tio n of th e sy ste m of so cial ju stic e w h ic h w o u ld c re a te a p p r o p ria te in c e n tiv e s to w o rk an d e n a b le th e im p le m e n ta tio n of tech n o lo g ica l p ro g ress on a w id e r sca le .22 He w as co n v in ced t h a t w ith in a s h o rt sp a n of tim e th e se fa c to rs w o u ld allow P o la n d to re a c h a h ig h s ta n d a r d of econom ic d ev e lo p m e n t. F o llo w in g K a m ie h s k i’s tr a in of th o u g h t one m a y th u s su p p o se th a t th e p ro te c tio n ist p o licy w as u n n e c e s s a ry an d ev en h a rm fu l s i n c e .i t w o u ld slow dow n th e r a te of th e econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t of th e co u n try .
T h e ex cessive o p tim ism as to th e ro le of th e v e ry tra n s fo rm a tio n s in social re la tio n s as a fa c to r a b o lish in g w ith in a s h o rt p e rio d of tim e th e econom ic u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t of P o la n d , seem s to h a v e h id d e n fo r K a m ie ń sk i th e w h o le c o m p le x ity of th e p ro b le m s of th e d e v e lo p m e n t of an ec o n o m ically b a c k w a rd c o u n try . In th is re s p e c t h e w as u n d e r an o v e rw h e lm in g in flu e n c e of th e econom ics of W e s te rn E u ro p e (E n g lan d an d F ra n c e ) w h o se le a d in g r e p re s e n ta tiv e s p o s tu la te d th e n o n -in te rv e n tio n of th e s ta te in th e fie ld of fo re ig n tra d e a n d w ho th o u g h t th a t th e m e c h a n ism of co m p e titio n in in te rn a tio n a l m a r k e t w as m o st fa v o u ra b le fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t of n a tio n a l p ro d u c tiv ity . F rid ric h L ist d id n o t fu lly s e p a ra te h im se lf fro m th e co n c ep ts of A n g lo -F re n c h econom ics since h e w as a n tic ip a tin g th a t in th e f u tu re , a f te r G e rm a n eco n o m y w o u ld h a v e re a c h e d a h ig h e r sta g e of d e v e lo p m e n t, it w o u ld be ab le to do w ith o u t th e in te rv e n tio n of th e s ta te . L ist th o u g h t t h a t in econom ic re la tio n s b e tw e e n s ta te s on th e sam e sta g e of d e v e lo p m e n t th e p rin c ip le s of fre e 'm a r k e t sh o u ld b e ap p lied .
T h e a ttitu d e of K a m ie ń sk i, a s u p p o rte r of lib e ra l p rin c ip le s in fo reig n tra d e , also r e s u lte d fro m th e sp ec ific h isto ric a l situ a tio n of th e P o lish n a tio n , d e p riv e d of in d e p e n d e n t ex isten c e. L is t’s p o stu la te s of ac tiv e econom ic policy w e re d ire c te d to th e P ru s s ia n sta te . In P o lish con d itio n s a f te r th e fa ilu re of th e N o v e m b e r U p ris in g a n d th e a b o lis h m e n t of th e n o m in a l in d e p e n d e n c e of th e ’’c o n s titu tio n a l” K in g d o m of P o la n d , th e p o stu la te s of th is k in d w o u ld o b v io u sly be m ista k e n .
I t is possible th a t to som e e x te n t K a m ie ń s k i’s a n tip ro te c tio n is t a t t i tu d e re s u lte d fro m th e id e n tific a tio n of h im se lf w ith th e in te re s ts of P o
Problem s of P roduction and N ation al W e a lt h .. 2 0 9
lish a g ric u ltu re . A t th a t tim e P o lish lan d o w n e rs w e re la rg e ly e x p o rte rs of a g r ic u ltu r a l p ro d u c ts. In th e econom ic co n fig u ratio n of th e w o rld a t th a t tim e a g r ic u ltu r a l p ro d u c e rs w e re s u p p o rte rs of th e p rin c ip le of fre e tra d e since th e y w e re n o t th re a te n e d by in te rn a tio n a l co m p etitio n . A t th e sam e tim e th e y w e re in te re s te d in th e im p o rt of cheap in d u s tria l goods. C o n stru c tin g his sy ste m of social ju stic e based on sm all p ro p e rty , K a m ień sk i k e p t in m in d th e a g ra ria n c h a ra c te r of P o la n d .23
2. THE ROLE OF C APITA L ACCUM ULATION IN ECONOMIC GROWTH
In H e n ry k K a m ie ń sk i’s econom ic sy ste m an im p o rta n t ro le w as p la y e d b y th e p ro b le m of th e fu n c tio n of c a p ita l a c c u m u la tio n in econo m ic d ev e lo p m e n t. K a m ie ń sk i w as fu lly a w a re of th e fa c t th a t m a s te ry o v e r n a tu re p ro v id e d m a n w ith ’’th e im p le m e n ts of la b o u r” or, in a w i d e r sense, p ro d u c tio n m ean s p ro d u c ed by m a n h im self an d u sed b y h im to a c q u ire goods fro m n a tu re . In his opinion th o se tools w e re in te g ra lly co n n e cted w ith h u m a n la b o u r ex p ressin g its ’’s p iritu a l p o w e r” , w h ich ’’su b d u e s th e p h y sical w o rld ” . W ith o u t p e rfe c tin g th e im p le m e n ts of la b o u r f u r th e r m a te ria l d e v e lo p m e n t of th e so ciety w o u ld be im p o ssib le.24
T he im p o rta n c e a tta c h e d by K a m ień sk i to th e p ro g ress in p e rfe c tin g p ro d u c tio n m ean s, u n d e rsto o d as a fa c to r co n d itio n in g f u r th e r g ro w th of p ro d u c tiv e fo rces, did n o t c o n tra d ic t th e th e o ry of v a lu e b ased on la b o u r w h ic h he accep ted . H e em p h asiz ed th a t th e im p le m e n ts of la b o u r did c o n s titu te a n e c e s sa ry e le m e n t in th e p ro d u c tio n process, y e t it d id n o t m e a n th a t th e y w e re ą v a lu e -c re a tin g elem e n t, ”(...) since th e y a re con ta in e d in th e g e n e ra l co n cep tio n of la b o u r w h ic h gives b ir th to all po ssible w e a lth ”.25 T he g e n e ra tio n of p ro d u c tio n m ean s does n o t aim a t sa tisfy in g c u r r e n t a n d d ire c t need s of m an b u t at in c re a sin g th e p ro d u c tio n p o te n tia l of th e so ciety w h ich is a basis of th e su b se q u e n t rise in th e p ro d u c tio n of c o n su m e rs’ goods.
K a m ień sk i id e n tifie s th e concept of ’’th e im p le m e n ts of la b o u r” w ith th e c a te g o ry of ca p ita l. A ccording to him , c a p ita l is o b je c tifie d la b o u r or th e v a lu e of th o se o u tla y s of h u m a n la b o u r w h ich re m a in a f te r th e fu lfilm e n t of c u r re n t co n su m p tio n need s of th e p o p u la tio n an d a re in te n d e d fo r p ro d u c tio n p u rp o se s.26 L ik e S m ith , K a m ie ń sk i th u s n a tu r a
-23 Cf. H. K a m i e ń s k i . O m a łe j w łasn ości z i e m s k i e j (On Sm all L a n d P r o p e rty ). „Przegląd N a u k o w y ”, W arszaw a 1844, no. 7', vol. I, pp. '21Q1—2I2'1, and H. K a - m i e ń s k i : O p r a w d a c h ż y w o t n y c h n arodu pols kie go (On Vital T ru th s of th e P o lish Nation). B ru ssels 1844, p. 73.
24 K a m i e ń s k i : F ilozofia e k o n o m ii materialn ej ..., pp. 264—265. 25 Ibid., p. 265.
26 Ib idem .
Z. S zym ań sk i
lizes th e co n cep t of ca p ita l, w h ile d istin g u is h in g it fr.om re se rv e s w h ich a re also sav ed p ro d u c ts of la b o u r b u t n o t in te n d e d fo r th e p u rp o se of r e p ro d u c tio n . In S m ith ’s case th e c o n c ep t of c a p ita l h as a w id e r ra n g e. H e d istin g u is h e s fix e d an d w o rk in g c a p ita ls an d th e la t t e r in clu d es, am on g o th e rs, th e re s e rv e s of food a rtic le s d e v o te d to th e m a in te n a n c e of p ro d u c tiv e w o rk e rs .^ S a y a n d S ism o n d i u n d e rs to o d c a p ita l s im ila rly to S m ith . S ism o n d i a lre a d y in tro d u c e d th e d istin c tio n b e tw e e n fix e d an d v a ria b le ca p ita ls; in th is w ay , h e c le a rly p e rc e iv e d th e p h en o m en o n of th e fo rm a tio n of s u rp lu s v a lu e .28
H o w e v er, th e d e fin itio n of th e co n c ep t of c a p ita l a c q u ire s a d iffe re n t sen se in M a rx ’s e a rly w ritin g s. In T h e Econom ic-P hilosophical M a n u scripts, w r itte n in 1844, M a rx s ta te s th a t c a p ita l is n o t sim p ly a c c u m u la te d la b o u r b u t la b o u r a c c u m u la te d b y so m eb o d y else an d opposed to th e w o rk e r as th e m e a n s of his e x iste n c e an d a c tiv ity a lie n a te d fro m him . In th is w a y M arx d isco v ers th e social essen ce of c a p ita l sin ce he c h a ra c te riz e s it as a d e fin ite class re la tio n .29
A g a in st th is b a c k g ro u n d th e p ro b le m of m a k in g a fe tis h of th e con cep t of c a p ita l b y th e a u th o r of T h e P h ilo s o p h y of M aterial E c o n o m y becom es a q u e stio n a b le issue. In th e n in e te e n fiftie s su ch a th e sis w as p u t fo rw a rd b y Z. C h o d k iew icz in his in tro d u c tio n to K a m ie h s k i’s S e lected W r i t i n g s.30 Id e n tify in g c a p ita l w ith th e im p le m e n ts of la b o u r or, still w id e r, w ith p ro d u c tio n m ean s, K a m ie ń sk i in d e e d re g a rd s th is eco nom ic c a te g o ry in an a h is to ric a l m a n n e r. In his op inion c a p ita l w as u sed b o th in fo rm a tio n s b ase d on n o n -e co n o m ic com p u lsio n an d in ca p ita lism , w h e re th e re is a sy ste m of h ire d lab o u r. Also in th e f u tu r e sy ste m of social ju stic e c a p ita l w as to be a n e c e s s a ry e le m e n t of th e p ro d u c tio n process.
In fa c t K a m ie ń sk i cam e v e ry clo sely to th e social in te rp re ta tio n of th e co n cep t of c a p ita l in c a p ita lis t econom y. In h is in tro d u c tio n to th e second p a r t of T h e P h ilo s o p h y of M aterial E c o n o m y he w rite s th a t, in o rd e r to u n d e r s ta n d th e essence of c a p ita list p ro d u c tio n re la tio n s, fo r th e c ritiq u e of c a p ita lism o n e sh o u ld em p lo y th e la b o u r th e o ry of v a lu e
27 S m i t h : B adania nad naturą..., vol. I, pp. 342—348.
28 J. C. L. S i m o n d e d e S i s m o n d i : Ne z a s a d y ek o n o m i i p o li ty c z n e j, c z y l i o b o g a c tw i e i jeg o s t o s u n k u do lu dności (N o u vea u x Prin cip es d ’économ ie p o li tique). W arszaw a 1955, vol. I, pp. 98—99.
29 Cf. D. R o z e n b e r g : Z a r y s r o z w o j u n a u k e k o n o m ic z n y c h M a rksa i Engelsa w la tach 40-tych X I X w i e k u (A n O utline of th e D e v e lo p m e n t of the Econom ic S cien ce of M ar x and Engels in th e Eigh teen -F orties). W arszaw a 1957, p. 164.
30 Cf. Z. P o n i a t o w s k i , J. B i b r o w s k a , Z. C h o d k i e w i c z : In tro du cti on (to:) H. K a m i e ń s k i : W y b ó r p is m (H. K a m i e ń s k i : (Selecte d W ritings), W arszaw a 1953, p. X LIV .
P roblem s of Production and N ation al W ealth 211
c re a te d b y classical econ om ists.31 In ca p ita lism th e r e la tio n s ‘b e tw e e n th e tw o an ta g o n istic classes assu m e th e fo rm of co m m o d ity -p e c u n ia ry re la tio n s w h ic h are o n ly a p p a re n tly based on th e p rin c ip le s of fre e w ill an d eq u iv ale n ce. T he o w n e rs of p ro d u c tio n m ean s o r c a p ita l m a y re fu s e to em p lo y th o se w ho seek w o rk a n d if th e y do em plo y th em , th e y ”(...) m e re ly aim a t g ain in g th e ir ow n o ne-sided goods.” T h e re fo re , in c a p ita lism ” (...) th e f r u its of w o rk a re tu rn e d to a o ne-sided a d v a n ta g e of th o se w h o possess th e rig h t to th em , fo r th e w e a k e r ca n n o t w o rk w ith o u t th e ir p e rm issio n (...).”32 T he s a la ry fo r th e w o rk p e rfo rm e d , o b ta in e d b y th e w o rk e r, does n o t in fa c t c o rresp o n d t o - th e v a lu e of his lab o u r. S om e effec ts of th e w o rk e r’s la b o u r a re a p p ro p ria te d by th e o w n e r of th e cap i ta l. In ca p ita lism , i.e. in a sy stem based on econom ic o r ’’in d ire c t” com pulsio n , th e e x p lo ita tio n is m ask ed an d th e re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e c a p i ta lis t an d th e w o rk e r assu m e th e fo rm of c o m m o d ity -p e c u n ia ry r e la tio n s, th u s c re a tin g an illu sio n of ju s t social re la tio n s.
In th e m odel sy ste m of social ju stic e c o n stru c te d b y K a m ie ń sk i th e co n c ep t of c a p ita l ac q u ires a d iffe re n t sense. In th is sy ste m K a m ie ń sk i p o stu la te s th e r ig h t of each in d iv id u a l to p riv a te p ro p e rty an d e x p li c itly p u ts fo rw a rd an id ea of m a k in g it p o p u la r. A n id eal s ta te w h ic h w o u ld re a liz e his p o s tu la te s is seen by h im in a situ a tio n ’’w h e n no m an e v e r n ee d u se som eone e lse ’s tools and, viece v ersa, w h e n no m a n could e v e r d e riv e a n y p ro fit fro m th e ca p ita l th a t w o u ld n o t se rv e h im se lf as a tool of w o rk , w h ile c a p ita l possession could n o t by itse lf fre e a n y b o d y fro m th e d u ty to w o rk ”.33
Id e n tify in g c a p ita l w ith p ro d u c tio n m ean s K a m ień sk i does n o t re g a rd la n d as c a p ita l or im p le m e n t of la b o u r b u t tr e a ts it as a so urce of w e a lth o r as an o b ject of w o rk . O n th is su b je c t he m ak es th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: ’’L a n d is in no re s p e c t a c a p ita l o r a tool of w o rk . L a n d is th e m a in so u rce of w e a lth — an ob ject, of h u m a n lab o u r, th e re fo re , an o b je c t to w h ic h sk ille d w o rk m u s t ad d c a p ita ls or th e tools of w o rk .” T h an k s to th e o u tla y of h u m a n la b o u r th e fe rtility of soil is in c re a se d w h ich th e n y ield s in te re s ts in th e fo rm of la rg e r crops. H ow ev er, th is is n o t a re s u lt of th e n a tu r a l p ro d u c tiv e p ro p e rtie s of soil b u t of ’’c a p ita ls in h e r e n t in la n d ”.34
A ccording to K a m ie ń sk i ’’c a p ita l is .c r e a te d b y la b o u r ex ceed in g th e sa tis fa c tio n of c u r r e n t n e e d s.” T hus, h e is conv in ced th a t th e re a re no o th e d m ean s of c re a tin g n ew capital, such as, fo r in stan ce , ac c u m u la tio n r e s u ltin g fro m th e process of saving. T he m a g n itu d e of a c c u m u la tio n is
31 K a m i e ń s k i : Filozofia eko n o m ii materialnej..., pp. 156— 157. 32 Ibid., p. 238—239.
33 Ibid., p. 278. 34 Ibid., pp. 270—271.
212
Ż. S zym ań sk ilim ite d by th e social d e m a n d s fo r p ro d u c tio n m ean s b ecau se all th e p ro d u c ts of h u m a n la b o u r a p p o in te d fo r p ro d u c tio n becom e a re s e rv e if th e y c a n n o t be u sed fo r a p p ro p ria te p u rp o se s. T he cre a tio n of p ro d u c tion m ean s c o n s titu te s th e sam e m a n n e r of ’’b rin g in g serv ices to so c ie ty ” as th e p ro d u c tio n of th e co n su m p tio n m eans. E v e ry m a n h as a p ossib i lity of a c q u irin g n e e d e d c a p ita ls n o t b ecau se of th e k in d of w o rk p e r fo rm e d b u t on th e basis of a c c u m u la tio n w h ic h is an u n c o n su m e d p a r t of th e p ro fit. T his excess of p ro fit, b e y o n d c u r r e n t c o n su m p tio n n eeds, is in itia lly a re s e rv e a n d it b ecom es a c a p ita l o n ly w h e n em p lo y ed in a p ro d u c tiv e w a y .35
As fa r as th e p ro b le m of th e so u rces of fin a n c in g th e g ro w th of th e p ro d u c tiv e p o te n tia l of th e so ciety is co n c ern e d , K a m ie h s k i’s co n sid e ra tio n s ta k e p lace on th e sam e p la n e a n d le a d to th e sam e conclusions as A d am S m ith ’s re fle c tio n s. In sa v in g a n d in th e a c c u m u la tio n process th e y b o th p e rc e iv e th e d riv in g p o w e r of econom ic g ro w th , th e o nly fa c to r in c re a sin g th e p ro d u c tiv e fo rces of th e society. H o w ev er, liv in g in th e e a rlie r, m a n u fa c to ry p e rio d of ca p ita lism , S m ith re g a rd s th e a c c u m u la tio n p ro cess as collecting , b y m e a n s of sav in g, th e m a in te n a n c e m ean s fo r th e w o rk e rs in o rd e r to in c re a se th e e m p lo y m e n t in p ro d u c tiv e b ra n c h e s of n a tio n a l eco n o m y .36 C o n tra ry to S m ith , in th e pro cess of c a p ita l a c c u m u la tio n K a m ie ń s k i p e rc e iv e s th e p h e n o m e n o n of c re a tin g new , m o re h ig h ly p e rfe c te d im p le m e n ts of w o rk , in cre asin g th e ’’s to u tn e s s ” of h u m a n la b o u r. T he e ffe c t of c a p ita l ac c u m u la tio n is to be seen in th e a p p lic a tio n of tech n o lo g ica l ad v a n c e s w h ich , ac co rd in g to K a m ie ń ski, b ecom es one of th e m a in fa c to rs in c re a sin g th e p ro d u c tiv ity of lab o u r.
In c re a sin g th e e ffic ie n c y of la b o u r o r its ’’s to u tn e s s ,” c a p ita l causes th e p a y m e n t fo r la b o u r p e rfo rm e d b y m e a n s of th e im p le m e n ts of w o rk to consist of 1) p a y m e n t fo r c u r r e n t w o rk (’’d ire c t w o rk ” to use M a rx ist term in o lo g y ); a n d 2) p a y m e n t fo r o b je c tifie d w o rk , co n ta in e d in th e p ro d u c tio n m ean s; ’’th e l a t t e r is d iv id e d in to c a p ita l r e tu r n if its v a lu e is e x h a u s te d b y use an d c a p ita l inco m e if it exceed s th is e x h a u stio n o r if it ta k e s p lace w ith o u t its d e c re a s e ”.37
In th e q u o te d fr a g m e n t of ’’T h e P h ilo so p h y of M aterial E c o n o m y ” th e te r m ’’c a p ita l r e t u r n ” re q u ir e s an e x p la n a tio n . As h a s b ee n m e n tio n e d above, fo r K a m ie ń sk i th e co n c ep tio n of ’’th e im p le m e n ts of la b o u r” h a s a w id e r m e a n in g an d p ro b a b ly in c lu d e s b o th th e m ean s of la b o u r a n d th e o b je c ts of la b o u r. T h u s, th e c a te g o ry of c a p ita l is id e n
35 Ibid., pp. 268— 269.'
36 S m i t h : B adania n a d naturą..., op. cit., vol. I, p. 427. 37 K a m i e ń s k i : Filozofia e k o n o m i i materialn ej..., p. 268.
Problem s of Production and N ation al W e a lt h .. 213
tifie d by K a m ie ń sk i w ith ’’th e im p le m e n ts of la b o u r” an d it c o n s titu te s a n e q u iv a le n t of M a rx is t co n sta n t capital. Since th e a u th o r of T h e P h ilo s o p h y of M aterial E c o n o m y does n o t in tro d u c e a d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n fix e d an d w o rk in g ca p itals, w h ich h as a lre a d y b een done b y A d am S m ith in T h e W e a lth of N ations, one m a y suppose th a t th e co n cep tion of ’’ca p ita l r e tu r n ” d en o tes th e v alu e of u tiliz e d p ro d u c tio n m ean s d u rin g th e p ro d u c tio n process.
T he c a te g o ry of ’’c a p ita l in co m e” also re q u ire s an ex p la n a tio n . T he p ro b le m poses m a n y d iffic u ltie s also to K a m ie ń sk i h im self. In th e socie t y of sm all p ro d u c e rs th e concept of ’’ca p ita l in co m e” c o n stitu te s, in his opinion, th e v a lu e of ’’th e service p ro v id ed b y c a p ita l.” T he m a tte r looks d iffe re n tly in th e c a p ita lis t sy s te m in w h ic h th e re occurs th e p h e n o m en o n of s e p a ra tin g c a p ita l o w n e rsh ip fro m d ire c t p ro d u c er. As one m a y guess fro m K a m ie h sk i’s f u r th e r a rg u m e n ta tio n , in th is sy stem th e co n c e p t of ’’c a p ita l in c o m e ” consists b o th of th e v alu e of th e serv ic e p ro v id ed by c a p ita l and of th e u n p a id p a rt of th e w o rk e r’s la b o u r.38
T hus, c a p ita l a c c u m u la tio n in cre ases n a tio n a l w e a lth an d ach ieves th is, am o n g o th e rs, by serv ic es re n d e re d by cap ital. T re a tin g la b o u r in p r in ciple as th e m ain so u rce of v alue, K a m ień sk i th e re fo re confuses th e p ro b le m of c re a tin g v a lu e w ith th a t of c re a tin g u tility v alu es. W ith th is ap p ro ach , c a p ita l m a y th u s seem p ro d u c tiv e since it in cre ases la b o u r efficien cy a n d ac q u ires th e rig h ts to p ro fits as a p ro d u c tiv e fa c to r in th e p ro d u c tio n process. In K a m ie ń s k i’s w o rk one m a y th u s no tice som e ele m e n ts of v u lg a r a ttitu d e s , y e t a t th a t tim e sim ila r co n cep tion s w e re e x p re sse d ev e n by su ch a d istin g u ish e d c ritic of classical econom ics an d a d e fe n d e r of th e b u rg h e rs o u sted b y c a p ita lism as S im o nde de S is- m o n d i,39 a n d in n u m e ro u s re p re s e n ta tiv e s of u to p ia n socialism . T h e re w a s n o th in g s tra n g e in th is, esp e cially in view of th e fa c t th a t u n d e r th e co n d itio n s of class a n ta g o n ism becom ing m ore a c u te in th e eig h tee n t h i r ties an d fo rties, v u lg a r econom ics w as th e p re d o m in a tin g tre n d in b o u r geoisie p o litica l econom y a t those tim es.
3. THEORY OF VALUE A N D PRICE
N a tio n a l w e a lth c re a te d d u rin g th e p ro d u c tio n process is th e n d is tr i b u te d b y m ean s of goods exch ange. F o r K a m ień sk i th e c a te g o ry of goods ex c h an g e, p e rfe c te d th ro u g h o u t th'e c e n tu rie s of th e h is to ry of h u m a n
38 Ibid., pp. 276—277.
39 The lan d rent is treated by Sism ondi as an effect of both the labour of farm w ork ers and as a product of nature h erself, draw ing in this resp ect on the con cep tion of p hysiocrats. Cf. J. C. L, S i m o n d e d e S i s m o n d i ; N o w e z a s a d y ... Vol. I, pp. 97— 98.
214 Z. S zym ań sk i
k in d , serves, b esid es lab o u r, d e fin ite in te g ra tiv e fu n c tio n s co n n e ctin g p a r tic u la r u n its a n d n a tio n s in to one h u m a n co m m u n ity .
’’T h e p ro g ress of e x c h a n g e ” in v o lv es an a p p ro p ria te a d v a n ce in th e d e v e lo p m e n t of p ro d u c tiv e fo rces th ro u g h a b e tte r o rg a n iz a tio n of th e p ro d u c tio n process an d div isio n of lab o u r. K a m ie ń sk i cou ld n o t im ag in e th e ex iste n c e of h u m a n so ciety w ith o u t an a p p ro p ria te ly d ev elo p ed com m o d ity -p e c u n ia ry ex c h a n g e and, m o reo v e r, h e th o u g h t th a t w ith th e p o p u la riz a tio n of th e idea of ’’u n ity am on g p e o p le ” , th a t is, to g e th e r w ith th e fo rm a tio n of m o re ju s t social re la tio n s , th e r e sh o u ld o ccu r f u r th e r a n im a tio n of th e ex c h a n g e re la tio n s. I t is w o rth em ph asizin g , h o w ev er, th a t in th e o pinion of th e a u th o r of T h e P h ilo s o p h y of M atęrial Econo m y , goods ex c h a n g e in its e lf is n o t an a c c e le ra to r of social p ro g ress n o r is it a c a u sal fa c to r in th e fo rm a tio n of h u m a n society, a lth o u g h its a p p e a ra n c e is an e x te r n a l m a n ife sta tio n of th e sh ap in g of th e society. T he tra n s fo rm a tio n s of th e fo rm s of ex c h a n g e a re a se c o n d a ry p h en o m en o n w h ic h tak es place a g a in st th e b a c k g ro u n d of a ch a n g in g re la tio n b e tw e e n m a n a n d n a tu re , n e v e rth e le s s , d e v e lo p m e n ts in e x c h an g e re la tio n s re fle c t socio-econom ic p ro g re s s.40 As can be seen, in h is th e o re tic a l c o n sid e ra tio n s K a m ie ń sk i w e n t v e r y fa r a h e a d in re s p c c t to th e a u th o r of T h e W e a lt h of Nations.
A c co rd in g to K a m ie ń sk i, each fo rm of ex c h a n g e sh o u ld be c h a ra c te rize d b y fre e w ill a n d eq u iv ale n ce. T h e fo u n d a tio n of th e fre e w ill of e x c h a n g e is an a g re e m e n t of b o th p a rtie s in v o lv ed a b o u t th e co nd itio ns of p u rc h a se an d sale of goods h a v in g c e rta in u tility v alu es. T he ra tio b e tw e e n th e s u p p ly of goods a n d serv ic es (in K a m ie ń sk i term in o lo g y th e su p p ly is called ”an o fferin g of f r u its a n d se rv ic e s”) a n d d em an d s, ,,the d esire of fr u its a n d se rv ic e s” , d e n o te s ’’th e ir r a te an d th u s esta b lish e s th e re la tio n of re c ip ro c ity of se rv ic e s ” .41 F re e w ill e x c h an g e d en o tes th e e x c h a n g e v a lu e of p ro d u c ts w h ic h K a m ie ń sk i id e n tifie s w ith v alu e, co nsciously fo llo w in g S m ith an d S ism on di.
R e fe rrin g to S m ith , K a m ie ń sk i p e rceiv es th e sou rces of th e ex c h an g e v a lu e of goods in th e o u tla y s of la b o u r re q u ir e d fo r th e ir p ro d u c tio n . R e g a rd in g la b o u r as th e sole so u rce of v a lu e or as th e o n ly fa c to r c re a tin g w e a lth , K a m ie ń s k i th in k s th a t n a tu r e — m a tte r , in c lu d in g lan d, is onljy an o b je c t of la b o u r, p assiv e m a te r ia l o u t of w h ich m an , in th e p ro d u c tio n process, c re a te s w e a lth .42
In his in te r p r e ta tio n of th e c a te g o ry of th e v a lu e of goods K a m ień sk i also re fe rs to S ism o n d i w h o se a p p ro a c h c o n s titu te d a c e rta in ste p fo r w a rd in th e th e o ry of v alu e. H e th in k s th a t th e v a lu e ”(...) of th e o ffe re d
40 K a m i e ń s k i : Filozofia e k o n o m i i mat erialn ej..., p. 203. 41 Ibid., p. 206.
Problem « of P roduction and N a tio n a l W ealth .. 215
serv ic e is d e te rm in e d b y th e q u a n tity an d k in d of o th e r serv ic es w h ic h can be o b ta in e d fo r i t ” .43 In o th e r w ords, o n ly th a t a m o u n t of lab o u r, w h ich is n ee d ed to sa tisfy social needs, h as a socially n ec e ssa ry c h a r ac te r.
In in te rp re tin g th e c a te g o ry of th e v alu e of goods K a m ie ń sk i also r e v e a ls som e in flu e n c e of Say. T re a tin g la b o u r in p rin c ip le as th e o nly v a lu e -c re a tin g fa cto r, K a m ień sk i also p o in ts o u t a n o th e r source of v a l ue — th e u tility of goods. S im ila rly to Say, he u n d e rs ta n d s u tility o b je c tiv e ly (as u tility of a given ty p e of goods fo r society). T his is w h a t h e w rite s on th e su b ject: ”T he m e a su re of m e rit (i.e. th e v a lu e of goods — Z.Sz.) is th e a d v a n ta g e w h ich re s u lts fro m it fo r so ciety an d th e h ig h e st a r b ite r is th e ac k n o w le d g e m e n t of com m on w ill re v e a lin g its e lf in th e d e te rm in a tio n of th e ex c h an g e v a lu e ”.44 F in d in g sou rces of th e v a lu e of goods n o t o nly in th e o u tla y of h u m a n la b o u r b u t also in th e u tility of goods w as a con seq u en ce of th e la c k of d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n th e p ro b lem of c re a tin g v alu e an d th e p ro b lem of c re a tin g u ti lity v alues. As h as b een s ta te d above, th is led to som e v u lg a r ap p ro ach e s in th e in te rp re ta tio n of capital.
Id e n tify in g th e v a lu e of goods w ith ex c h an g e v alu e K a m ie ń sk i could n o t e x a c tly sp ecify th e co n cep t of th e goods p rice. In h is con viction th e p rice of th e p ro d u c t h as an alm o st id e n tic a l co n te n t as th e e x c h an g e v a lu e of goods. P ric e m ean s ” (...) th e re a l ra tio of th e re c ip ro c ity of serv ices, y e t re g a rd le ss of w h e th e r rig h tly an d w ro n g ly d e te r m in e d ”.45 C o n siste n tly a p p ly in g th e p rin c ip le of fre e w ill of ex ch an g e, th e p rice of a good is id e n tic a l w ith its v a lu e an d it d iffe rs fro m th e v a lu e of th e good if th e e x c h an g e ta k e s place u n d e r som e fo rm of com pulsion.
4. COM PETITION A N D M ONOPOLY V ER SU S THE PROBLEM OF M AXIM IZA TION OF N ATIO NA L W EALTH
L ik e S m ith , K a m ie ń sk i also p erceiv es th e o p eratio n of o b jectiv e eco n om ic law s, in d e p e n d e n t of h u m a n w ill, w h ich m ak e it n e c e ssa ry fo r th e s ta te to in te rv e n e in th e m a tte rs of th e c o u n try ’s econom y in o rd e r to m ax im iz e n a tio n a l w e a lth . A n id eal of th e co m m o d ity sy ste m is fo u n d by h im in th e fu lly re a liz e d m a rk e t econom y in w h ich th e law of v a lu e d e te rm in e s th e allo catio n of th e re so u rces of b o th d ire c t a n d m a te ria liz e d lab o u r.
43 Ibid., pp. 206—207.
44 Ibid., p. 207. In S ay the relev a n t passage reads: ’’The v a lu e w h ich people assign to things has its m ain basis in the u tility w h ich th ey can derive from th em ,” Cf. S a y : Traktat..., p. 85.
