Metre and interpretation of the Exeter Book elegies

A N N A L E S

81,9(56,7$7,60$5,$(&85,(6.à2'2:6.$

/8%/,1±32/21,$

92/;;,; 6(&7,2)) 

SUMMARY

7KHSUHVHQWSDSHULVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKH2OG(QJOLVKYHUVL¿FDWLRQV\VWHP

DQGWKHPHDQLQJRISRHWLFDOSDVVDJHVZULWWHQLQWKHYHUQDFXODU6HOHFWHGH[DPSOHVIURPWKH^WK- FHQWXU\([HWHU&RGH[HOHJLHV7KH/LEUDU\RI'HDQDQG&KDSWHU([HWHU0VGLVFXVVHGLQWKH

SDSHUVKRZWKDWWKHNQRZOHGJHRIWKHIXQGDPHQWDOPHWULFDOUXOHVSDYHVWKHZD\WRWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJ

RILQWULFDWHDQGVHPDQWLFDOO\FKDOOHQJLQJSRHWLFDOFUXFHV([DPLQDWLRQRIPHWULFDOSDWWHUQVKHOSVWR

EULGJHWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKHSXUHO\OLWHUDU\GHVFULSWLRQVDQGWKHOLQJXLVWLFDQDO\VLVRIWKH$QJOR6D[RQ

YHUVL¿FDWLRQ V\VWHP &RQWHPSRUDU\ VWXGLHV RI PHWUH FRQVWUDLQ LQWXLWLYH VROXWLRQV E\ HVWDEOLVKLQJ

XQGHUO\LQJSDWWHUQVFRPPRQWRERWKSRHWLFDOFRPSRVLWLRQDQGODQJXDJH&ORVHDQDO\VLVRIVRPH

DPELJXRXVSRHWLFDOSDVVDJHVIURPWKHExeter BookHOHJLHVLQGLFDWHVWKDWVXFKIRUPDODSSURDFKHV

RIIHUDQREMHFWLYHZD\WRUHVROYHFRQWURYHUVLDOSRHWLFDOYHUVHV

Keywords 2OG (QJOLVK YHUVL¿FDWLRQ V\VWHP PHDQLQJ RI SRHWLFDO SDVVDJHV PHWULFDO UXOHV

VHPDQWLFVRIWH[W

0HWULFDOVWXGLHVRI2OG(QJOLVKSRHWU\JREDFNWRWKHHQGRIWKH^WKFHQWXU\

ZKHQ(GXDUG6LHYHUVSURSRVHGDGHVFULSWLYHWD[RQRP\RIROG*HUPDQLFDOOLWHUDWLYH

YHUVH OLQHV 7KH FODVVL¿FDWLRQ RI PHWULFDO W\SHV DQG SDWWHUQV SUHVHQWHG LQ KLV

$OWJHUPDQLVFKH0HWULNKDVVHUYHGDVUHIHUHQFHIRUDOOWKHVWXGLHVFRQFHUQHGZLWK

ROG*HUPDQLFPHWULFVHYHUVLQFHZKHQWKHERRNZDVSXEOLVKHG^$OWKRXJK

3DUWVRIWKHERRNZHUHWUDQVODWHGLQWR(QJOLVKE\%HVVLQJHUDQG.DUODQGSXEOLVKHGLQ

LQWKH(VVHQWLDO$UWLFOHVIRUWKH6WXG\RI2OG(QJOLVK3RHWU\$FRPSUHKHQVLYHRXWOLQHRI6LHYHUV¶

WKHRU\ IXUQLVKHG ZLWK VRPH FRQWHPSRUDU\ DGYDQFHV LQ WKH ¿HOG LV SUHVHQWHG LQ DQ LQWURGXFWRU\

HVVD\RQYHUVL¿FDWLRQE\5'))XONLQ3RSH±

Metre and interpretation of the Exeter Book elegies

021,.$23$/,ē6.$

0HWUXPLLQWHUSUHWDFMDHOHJLL]Exter Book

=DNáDG-Ċ]\ND$QJLHOVNLHJR8QLZHUV\WHW:DUV]DZVNL:DUV]DZD

8

WKHRUHWLFDODGHTXDF\RI6LHYHUV¶DQDO\VLVLVGHEDWDEOHLWVGHVFULSWLYHDFFXUDF\LV

LQGLVSXWDEOH%HLQJVRIXQGDPHQWDO6LHYHUV¶ZRUNUHPDLQV³DERRNZKLFKVFKRODUV

ZLOOFRQWLQXHWRXVHRUQHJOHFWDWWKHLUSHULO´²

,QWKHHDUO\WKLUWLHVRIWKH^WKFHQWXU\D3ROLVKOLQJXLVW-HU]\.XU\áRZLF]

SXEOLVKHGDQXPEHURIVWXGLHVFRQFHUQHGZLWK,QGR(XURSHDQPHWULFVLQZKLFK

KH WUDFHG WKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ OLQJXLVWLF FDWHJRULHV DQG PHWUH³ :RUNLQJ RQ

FRPSDUDWLYH PDWHULDO KH ZDV DEOH WR ¿QG SDUDOOHO SKHQRPHQD LQ LQGHSHQGHQW

WUDGLWLRQVUHSUHVHQWHGE\FDWHJRULHVDVGLVWLQFWW\SRORJLFDOO\DV/DWLQKH[DPHWHU

DQG2OG(QJOLVKDOOLWHUDWLYHOLQHDQGHVWDEOLVKFRUUHODWHVEHWZHHQWKHODQJXDJH

XVHG E\ D JLYHQ FRPPXQLW\ DQG WKH IRUPV RI SRHWU\ LW JHQHUDWHG $ 5XVVLDQ

OLQJXLVW 5RPDQ -DNREVRQ FDPH WR VLPLODU FRQFOXVLRQV ZKLOH VWXG\LQJ 6ODYLF

YHUVHIRUPVIRUH[DPSOH-DNREVRQ7KLVQRYHOSHUVSHFWLYHKHOSHGWRVHW

PHWULFDOVWXGLHVZLWKLQDEURDGHUGRPDLQRIJHQHUDOOLQJXLVWLFVDQGSDYHGWKHZD\

IRUIXWXUHWKHRUHWLFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQVFRQGXFWHGDPRQJRWKHUVE\.LSDUVN\

'UHVKHUDQG/DKLUL+D\HVDQG5XVVRP

5HFHQW\HDUVKDYHZLWQHVVHGDUHYLYDORILQWHUHVWLQWKHIRUPDOVWXG\RIPHWUH

LQ D ZD\ WKDW KHOSV WR EULGJH WKH JXOI EHWZHHQ OLWHUDU\ DQG OLQJXLVWLF DQDO\VLV

RI SRHWLF ODQJXDJH )RUPDO OLQJXLVWLF VWXGLHV RI PHWUH RIIHU DQDO\WLFDO WRROV WR

PHDVXUH DQG FRQVWUDLQ LQWXLWLYH VWDWHPHQWV DERXW SRHWLFDO VW\OH7KH DXWKRUV RI

Formal Approaches to PoetryULJKWO\FODLPWKDW³>L@WLVRQO\DPDWWHURIWLPHEHIRUH

VWXGHQWV RI OLWHUDWXUH UHGLVFRYHU PHWULFDO DQDO\VLV´ FI 'UHVKHU DQG )ULHGEHUJ

  (DUO\ *HUPDQLF DOOLWHUDWLYH YHUVHV DUH ZLWKLQ WKH VFRSH RI FXUUHQW

GHYHORSPHQWVLQWKHWKHRU\RIPHWUHFI'UHVKHUDQG/DKLUL5XVVRP

ÈUQDVRQ  ,Q WKH OLJKW RI XQVHWWOHG FRQWURYHUVLHV FRQFHUQLQJ WKLV SRHWLFDO

WUDGLWLRQ WKH DQDO\VLV RI 2OG (QJOLVK PHWULFDO V\VWHP EHFRPHV DQ LQWULQVLFDOO\

LQWHUHVWLQJLVVXHLQLWVHOI$VVXFKLWKDVEHHQWKHVXEMHFWRIQXPHURXVDQGRIWHQ

FRQWUDGLFWRU\VWXGLHVRYHUWKHSDVW\HDUVFI0F&XOO\DQG$QGHUVRQ

27KLVTXRWDWLRQHFKRHVWKHZRUGVRI1HLO.HUDGGUHVVHGDWKLVJUDQGSUHGHFHVVRU±WKH^WK- FHQWXU\ SDODHRJUDSKHU +XPSKUH\ :DQOH\ OLNH KLPVHOI HQJDJHG LQ FDWDORJXLQJ $QJOR6D[RQ

PDQXVFULSWV ,Q WKH ,QWURGXFWLRQ WR KLV &DWDORJXH RI 0DQXVFULSWV &RQWDLQLQJ $QJOR6D[RQ .HU

SD\V KRPDJH WR WKH DFKLHYHPHQWV RI KLV UHQRZQHG IRUHUXQQHU DQGHPSKDVL]HV WKH UHVSRQVLELOLW\

RIKLVIROORZHUVFI.HU[LLL(GXDUG6LHYHUV¶SRVLWLRQLQWKH¿HOGRIKLVWRULFDOOLQJXLVWLFV

LVFRPSDUDEOHWRWKDWRI:DQOH\LQWKHGRPDLQRISDODHRJUDSK\DQGGRFXPHQWDU\VWXGLHV6LHYHUV¶

FRPSDUDWLYHVWXGLHVOHGKLPWRLPSRUWDQWFRQFOXVLRQVFRQFHUQLQJWKHSKRQRORJ\RIHDUO\*HUPDQLF

ODQJXDJHVLH6LHYHUV¶/DZ$OVRIHZODWHUJUDPPDULDQVZHUHDEOHWRVXUSDVVWKHLQVLJKWDQGWKH

DEXQGDQFH RI GDWD ZKLFK FKDUDFWHUL]H KLV GHVFULSWLYH *UDPPDU RI 2OG (QJOLVK D ERRN UHLVVXHG

VHYHUDO WLPHV7KH LPSDFW RI 6LHYHUV¶ ZRUN LV E\ QR PHDQV FRQ¿QHG WR KLVWRULFDO GDWD 6RPH RI

KLVOLQJXLVWLFREVHUYDWLRQVOLNHWKH¿QHGLVWLQFWLRQVLQWKHGHJUHHRIFRQVRQDQWDOVRQRULW\DUHVWLOO

UHFRJQL]HGLQFRQWHPSRUDU\SKRQRORJ\

3 .XU\áRZLF] SUHVHQWHG WKH UHVXOWV RI KLV WKHRU\ RI PHWULFDO HTXLYDOHQFH LQ D IHZ SDSHUV

QRWDEO\=ZLą]NLPHWU\NL]MĊ]\NLHPSRWRF]Q\PDQGLatin and Germanic Metre%RWK

SDSHUVDSSHDUDOVRLQ(VTXLVVHV/LQJXLVWLTXHVSXEOLVKHGLQ,QWKHV.XU\áRZLF]SXEOLVKHG

DQRWKHUSDSHUDQGWZRERRNVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQOLQJXLVWLFFDWHJRULHVDQGSRHWLF

PHWUH0HWULNXQG6SUDFKJHVFKLFKWH7KH/LQJXLVWLF)RXQGDWLRQVRI0HWUHDQGZLWK

ROG*HUPDQLFPHWULFV'LHVSUDFKOLFKHQ*UXQGODJHQGHUDOWJHUPDQLVFKHQ0HWULN 021,.$23$/,ē6.$

9 3UDFWLFDOO\ DOO FRPSUHKHQVLYH DQDO\VHV RI 2OG (QJOLVK PHWUH DUH EDVHG RQ

%HRZXOI±µDXQLTXHORQJSRHPLQWUDGLWLRQDOVW\OHGHDOLQJZLWKWUDGLWLRQDOVXEMHFW

PDWWHU¶FI5XVVRP7KLVLVKDUGO\VXUSULVLQJLQYLHZRIWKHOHQJWKDQG

LQWHUQDOFRKHUHQFHRIWKHWH[W7KHXQLTXH%HRZXOIPDQXVFULSW%ULWLVK0XVHXP

&RWWRQ9LWHOOLXV$;9ZDVSDUWLDOO\GDPDJHGLQWKH¿UHRIZLWKWKHORVVRI

DIHZZRUGVDWWKHWRSDQGWKHRXWHUSDUWRIPDQ\OHDYHV+RZHYHUWKHUHDGLQJDQG

SXQFWXDWLRQRIWKHXQFHUWDLQRUORVWSDVVDJHVFDXVHGE\FUXPEOLQJRIWKHEXUQW

HGJHVFDQEHYHUL¿HGDQGDWOHDVWSDUWLDOO\UHVWRUHGRZLQJWR7KRUNHOLQ¶VWUDQVFULSW

QRZ&RSHQKDJHQ1\.RQJHOLNH6DPO^RPDGHLQZKHQWKHWH[WZDV

IDU PRUH OHJLEOH7KH SRHP FRQWDLQHG EHWZHHQ WKH IROLRV ±Y RI &RWWRQ

9LWHOLXVDQGZULWWHQE\WZRVFULEHVLQFOXGHVDOOLWHUDWLYHOLQHV7KHFUDPSHG

KDQGZULWLQJDWWKHHQGRIIROLRPD\VXJJHVWVFULEDOHIIRUWWRFRPSOHWHWKHWH[W

VLQFHWKLVLVWKHYHUVRRIWKHODVWSDJHRIWKHTXLUH7KHFRPSRXQGDGMHFWLYHORȸI

JHRUQRVWPRVWHDJHUIRUIDPHZULWWHQDWWKHERWWRPPDUJLQRIWKLVIROLRPD\

KDYHWKXVEHHQWKHODVWZRUGRI%HRZXOI<HWHYHQLILWZHUHQRWWKHQXPEHURI

DWWHVWHGOLQHVKHUHLVJUHDWHUWKDQLQDQ\RIWKHH[WDQW$QJOR6D[RQSRHWLFDOWH[WV

7KHVSDQRIRYHUWKUHHWKRXVDQGOLQHVLVODUJHHQRXJKWRSURYLGHDGHSHQGDEOH

QXPEHURIUHFXUUHQWUK\WKPLFDOSDWWHUQVZKLFKPDNHV%HRZXOIDIDLUO\UHOLDEOH

FRUSXVIRUPHWULFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQV⁴

6LQFHWUDGLWLRQDOVXEMHFWPDWWHULVDQLPSRUWDQWIDFWRULQWKHDQDO\VLVRI2OG

(QJOLVKPHWUHWKH Exeter Book7KH/LEUDU\RI'HDQDQG&KDSWHU([HWHU0V

DPDQXVFULSWZKLFKFRQWDLQVSRHPVURRWHGLQWKHFRQYHQWLRQDO*HUPDQLF

LPDJHU\VHHPVWREHDQDWXUDOWDUJHWIRUFRPSOHPHQWDU\VWXGLHVLQWKH¿HOG7KH

FRGH[ LV XVXDOO\ LGHQWL¿HG ZLWK WKH PLFHO (QJOLVK ERȸF EH JHKZLOFXP ìLQJXP

RQOHȸR'ZLȸVDQJHZRUKWDJUHDWERRNLQ(QJOLVKDERXWPDQ\WKLQJVZULWWHQLQ

YHUVHPHQWLRQHGLQWKHOLVWRIGRQDWLRQVWRWKHFDWKHGUDOJLYHQE\/HRIULFELVKRS

RI([HWHUIURPWR⁵,QGHHGWKHExeter BookLVDOPRVWXQLTXHDPRQJ

WKH$QJOR6D[RQPDQXVFULSWVLQWKDWLWFRQWDLQVRQO\SRHWLFDOWH[WVWKHPDMRULW\

RI ZKLFK ZHUH FRPSRVHG DFFRUGLQJ WR FODVVLFDO YHUVL¿FDWLRQ UXOHV⁶ $PRQJ

40HWULVWVXVXDOO\HPSKDVL]HQRWRQO\WKHOHQJWKRIDQDQDO\VHGWH[WEXWDOVRLWVFRQWHQWVRU

WKHPHFI5XVVRPI(GGLFSRHPVRQQDWLYH6FDQGLQDYLDQVXEMHFWVZULWWHQLQWKHIRUPRI

IRUQ\U'LVODJWKHPHWUHRIWKHROGVD\LQJVXVXDOO\UHJDUGHGDVWKH1RUVHHTXLYDOHQWRI2OG(QJOLVK

PHWUH KDYH SDUDOOHO VWDWXV WR%HRZXOI 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG PXFK DV WKH OHQJWK RI WKH 2OG 6D[RQ

Heliand LVLWVGLVWLQFWDGYDQWDJHWUDGLWLRQDOPHWULFDOVWUDWHJLHVVRPHWLPHVVHHPWREHLQFRQVLVWHQW

ZLWKWKHVDFUHGWKHPHRIWKHSRHPFI5XVVRPII

5$FRS\RIWKHGRQDWLRQOLVWDSSHDUVRQIROYERXQGLQZLWKCodex Exoniensis$QHOHFWURQLF

HGLWLRQRIWKHHQWLUHFRGH[DORQJZLWKWKHFULWLFDODSSDUDWXVXSGDWHGELEOLRJUDSK\DQGFRGLFRORJLFDO

GHWDLOVZDVSUHSDUHGE\0XLU

6 1RWDEO\ WKH -XQLXV 0DQXVFULSW -XQLXV  %RGOHLDQ /LEUDU\ 2[IRUG LV DQRWKHU PDMRU

FRGH[RI$QJOR6D[RQYHUQDFXODUSRHWU\HQWLUHO\LQYHUVH,QFRQWUDVWWRWKHExeter Book-XQLXV

FRQWDLQVIHZHUEXWORQJHUDQGWKHPDWLFDOO\DNLQWH[WV7KH¿UVWRILWVIRXUELEOLFDOSRHPVGenesis

H[WHQGVRYHUYHUVHOLQHVZKLFKQHDUO\UHDFKHVWKHQXPEHURIOLQHVLQ%HRZXOI+RZHYHUWKH

0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6



QRWDEOH H[FHSWLRQV GLYHUJLQJ IURP WKH VWDQGDUG SDWWHUQV DUH The 5LPLQJ 3RHP

IROVU±YZKLFKFRPELQHVDOOLWHUDWLRQDQGUK\PHVDQGThe PhoenixIROV

Y±YZKLFKFRQWDLQVDQ$QJOR/DWLQPDFDURQLFSDVVDJH$IHZRWKHUWH[WV

IRUH[DPSOHDeor IROVU±Y:XOIDQG(DGZDFHUIROVY±U DQGThe 5XLQIROVY±YDOVREHDUVLJQVRIIRUHLJQLQÀXHQFHDQGQRQLQGLJHQRXV

SDWWHUQVRIYHUVHFRPSRVLWLRQ2QIXUWKHULQVSHFWLRQCodex Exoniensis WXUQVRXW

WREHDPLVFHOODQHRXVFROOHFWLRQLQZKLFKWUDGLWLRQDOSLHFHVVXFKDVThe Wanderer RUThe SeafarerERUGHURQSUD\HUVULGGOHVVDLQWV¶OLYHVPD[LPVUHOLJLRXVSRHPV

DQGDQXPEHURIRWKHUSRHWLFDOWH[WVZKLFKHOXGHPRGHUQFODVVL¿FDWRU\FULWHULD

7KH SRHPV YDU\ LQ OHQJWK EXW QRQH RI WKHP PD\ EH FRPSDUHG WR %HRZXOI DV

UHJDUGVWKHQXPEHURIYHUVHOLQHV0DQXVFULSWFROODWLRQOLNHZLVHVXJJHVWVFRPSOH[

KLVWRU\DQGPXOWLSOHVRXUFHVEHKLQGWKHYDULRXVSRHPVERXQGLQZLWKWKHExeter Book)XUWKHUPRUHWKHWH[WVPD\KDYHKDGKHWHURJHQHRXVGLDOHFWDOSURYHQDQFH

$OWKRXJKWKHWH[WXDOPDWHULDOZDV¿OWHUHGWKURXJKWKHKDQGVRIDVLQJOHVFULEH

VRPH WUDFHV RI LWV RULJLQDO OLQJXLVWLF IHDWXUHV IXUWKHU FRQWULEXWH WR WKH LQWHUQDO

GLYHUVL¿FDWLRQRIWKHFRUSXV0DQ\IROLRVQRZPLVVLQJLQPRUHWKDQRQHRIWKH

CodexJDWKHULQJVPD\KDYHFRQWDLQHGVSHFLPHQVRIDQHYHQPRUHYDULHGVWUXFWXUH

DQGKLVWRU\

&OHDUO\WKHVHUHDVRQVSUHFOXGHDWWHPSWVWRWUHDWWKHSRHWLFDOWH[WVJDWKHUHG

LQ0VDVDFRUSXVHTXLYDOHQWWR%HRZXOIHYHQWKRXJKWKHWRWDOQXPEHURI

SRHWLFDOOLQHVLQWKHIRUPHUJURVVO\H[FHHGVWKDWLQWKHODWWHU<HWLQWHUQDOYDULDWLRQ

ERWKLQWHUPVRIWKHPHDQGVWUXFWXUDOFRPSRVLWLRQPDNHVCodex ExoniensisDQ

LQWHUHVWLQJFRPSOHPHQWDU\VRXUFHWRPHWULFDOVWXGLHVYLVjYLV%HRZXOI2QWKHRQH

KDQGSRHPVIURPWKHCodexVKDUHHQRXJKRIWKHFRPPRQFRUHWREHFRPSDUHG

WRWKH%ULWLVK0XVHXPH[HPSODUDQGRQWKHRWKHUWKH\H[KLELWVRPHRXWVWDQGLQJ

IHDWXUHVZKLFKVWUD\DZD\IURPWKHVWDQGDUGSDWWHUQVDQGWKXVSURYLGHFRQWUDVWLYH

PDWHULDO

,Q6LHYHUV¶DQDO\VLVRI*HUPDQLFSRHWU\WKHIXQGDPHQWDOXQLWLVDYHUVHRU

DKDOIOLQHZKLFKKDVIRXUPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQVWZRVWURQJRQHVFRUUHVSRQGLQJWR

V\OODEOHVFDUU\LQJSULPDU\VWUHVVDQGWZRZHDNRQHVHPERGLHGE\VHFRQGDULO\

VWUHVVHGV\OODEOHVDQGXQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHV7KHWKUHHOHYHOVRIVWUHVVGH¿QHWKH

FRUUHVSRQGLQJPHWULFDOJUDGHVOLIWKDOIOLIWDQGGURS(DFKYHUVHFRPSULVHVWZR

IHHWZKLFKLGHDOO\FRLQFLGHZLWKV\QWDFWLFFRQVWLWXHQWV7KHEDVLFYHUVHVWUXFWXUH

LV IDLUO\ ÀH[LEOH ,Q SDUWLFXODU WKH QXPEHU RI ZHDN SRVLWLRQV UHSUHVHQWHG E\

WKHXQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHVFDQEHPXOWLSOLHG7KHGLVWULEXWLRQRIVWURQJDQGZHDN

SRVLWLRQVLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\DIUDPHZRUNRI¿YHW\SHV$±(PDUNHGE\GHVFHQGLQJ

VXEMHFWPDWWHURIWKHIRUPHUWH[WKDVVXEVWDQWLDOLQÀXHQFHRQLWVOH[LFDOVWUXFWXUHZKLFKDERXQGV

LQ ELEOLFDO WHUPV DQG QDPHV 7KH HIIRUWV WR DFFRPPRGDWH WKHVH IRUHLJQ ZRUGV WR WKH DOOLWHUDWLYH

FRQWRXUDUHFOHDUO\YLVLEOHEXWRWKHUPHWULFDOUHODWLRQVIRUH[DPSOHWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIVWUHVVHGDQG

XQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHVRUV\OODEOHZHLJKWDUHKDUGO\FRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHVWDQGDUGSDUDGLJP

021,.$23$/,ē6.$



IUHTXHQF\ 7KH VLPSOH FDVHV H[KLELW RQHWRRQH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ PHWULFDO

SRVLWLRQVDQGV\OODEOHV+RZHYHULWLVRIWHQWKHFDVHWKDWPRUHV\OODEOHV¿OOHDFK

SRVLWLRQ7KLVH[WHQVLRQLVE\QRPHDQVFRQ¿QHGWRWKHZHDNRQHV$VWURQJPHWULFDO

SRVLWLRQFDQEH¿OOHGHLWKHUE\DVLQJOHKHDY\RUORQJV\OODEOHRUE\DVHTXHQFH

RIWZROLJKWRUVKRUWV\OODEOHV⁷7KHSKHQRPHQRQRIPHWULFDOHTXLYDOHQFHNQRZQ

DV 5HVROXWLRQ ZDV ¿UVW GLVFXVVHG DW OHQJWK E\ -HU]\ .XU\áRZLF]   DQGODWHUE\RWKHUPHWULVWV⁸0HWULFDODFFHQWVFRLQFLGHZLWKOH[LFDOFDWHJRULHVLQ

DZD\WKDWEURDGO\UHÀHFWVSKUDVDOVWUHVV1DPHO\FRQWHQWZRUGVRFFXS\VWURQJ

SRVLWLRQVZKLOHIXQFWLRQZRUGV±WKHZHDNRQHV7KLVGLVWLQFWLRQLVDGGLWLRQDOO\

KLJKOLJKWHGE\WKHDOOLWHUDWLYHFRQWRXUZKLFKQRUPDOO\WLHVWKHPHWULFDOO\VDOLHQW

OH[LFDOZRUGVRIWKH¿UVWYHUVHZLWKDQREOLJDWRU\VLQJOHDOOLWHUDWLYHHOHPHQWLQ

WKHVHFRQGKHPLVWLFK⁹

(YHQ WKRXJK PDQ\ DVSHFWV RI WKH 2OG (QJOLVK YHUVL¿FDWLRQ V\VWHP UHPDLQ

FRQWURYHUVLDOWKHEDVLFFRQVWLWXHQWVDQGLQWHUQDOKLHUDUFK\RIDQDOOLWHUDWLYHYHUVH

OLQH KDYH EHHQ HVWDEOLVKHG ZLWK VRPH FHUWDLQW\ ,Q WKH DSSDUHQWO\ PRQRWRQRXV

DQGUHSHWLWLYHDOOLWHUDWLYHVFDQVLRQRI2OG(QJOLVKYHUVHVWKHVHPHWULFDOHOHPHQWV

RFFDVLRQDOO\DFWDVVHPDQWLFFXHV0HWULFDOFRKHUHQFHRIDQDOOLWHUDWLYHYHUVHOLQH

LVWKHVLJQSRVWWRWKHKLGGHQPHDQLQJRIVRPHLQWULFDWHDQGVHPDQWLFDOO\REVFXUH

SDVVDJHVRI$QJOR6D[RQSRHWU\6HOHFWHGH[DPSOHVIURPWKHExeter Book HOHJLHV

GLVFXVVHGEHORZVKRZWKDWPHWUHFDQLQWHUDFWZLWKWKHJUDPPDUDQGPHDQLQJRI

SRHWU\LQVXEWOHDQG\HWHQOLJKWHQLQJZD\V

$OOLWHUDWLRQWKHPRVWFRQVSLFXRXVHOHPHQWRIROG*HUPDQLFYHUVHVWUXFWXUH

RIWHQ DFFHQWXDWHV WKH ZRUGV ZKLFK DUH LPSRUWDQW WR WKH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH

PHVVDJHRUDSSUHFLDWLRQRIDSRHP¶VLQWHUQDOFRPSRVLWLRQ7KHPRVWQRWLFHDEOH

FDVHVLQYROYHSDVVDJHVLQZKLFKVWULFWDOOLWHUDWLRQUXOHVDUHLQVRPHZD\VUHOD[HG

7KHUHSHWLWLYHSKUDVHRIDeorì VRIHUHRGHìLVVHVVZDP JZKLFKVHUYHVWKH

IXQFWLRQRIDTXDVLUHIUDLQLVDVDOLHQWH[DPSOHRIVXFKLQWHQWLRQDOH[WHQVLRQRI

PHWULFDOFRQVWUDLQWV+HUHWKHDOOLWHUDWLYHVFDQVLRQKLQJHVRQWKHUHSHWLWLRQRIDQ

LQWHUGHQWDO IULFDWLYH LQ WZR IXQFWLRQ ZRUGV ì V DQG ìLVVHV7KH HPSKDVLV ODLG

77KH LVVXH RI V\OODEOH ZHLJKW LV LQ IDFW PRUH FRPSOH[ )RU WKH VDNH RI WKH SUHVHQW SDSHU

VXII¿FHLWWRVD\WKDWLQ*HUPDQLFODQJXDJHVDKHDY\V\OODEOHPD\EHLPSOHPHQWHGE\DORQJQXFOHXV

9ȸ RU D VKRUW YRFDOLF QXFOHXV IROORZHG E\ D FRQVRQDQW LQ WKH FRGD 9& )RU GHWDLOV VHH IRU

H[DPSOH.DWDPED/DVVII'UHVKHUDQG/DKLUL

8 5HVROXWLRQ ZKLFK KDV LWV FRUUHODWH LQ 2OG (QJOLVK SKRQRORJ\ LH WKH SURFHVV RI +LJK

9RZHO'HOHWLRQZKLFKGHOHWHVKLJKYRZHOVDIWHUDVLQJOHKHDY\V\OODEOHRUDIWHUWZROLJKWRQHV

VKRZVDI¿QLWLHVZLWKVLPLODUSKHQRPHQDLQRWKHUPHWULFDOV\VWHPVDQGFUXFLDOO\LVVXSSRUWHGE\

D QXPEHU RI FRPSHOOLQJ H[DPSOHV IURP$QJOR6D[RQ YHUQDFXODU YHUVHV FI 'UHVKHU DQG /DKLUL

1HYHUWKHOHVVLWLVVWLOOUHJDUGHGDVFRQWURYHUVLDOE\VRPHPHWULVWV

9 ,W LV FRPPRQO\ DVVXPHG WKDW WKH ¿UVW KHPLVWLFK PD\ FRQWDLQ PD[LPDOO\ WZR DOOLWHUDWLYH

DFFHQWVZKHUHDVWKHVHFRQG±RQO\RQH:KLOHWKHSULQFLSOHLVWUXHLQWKHPDMRULW\RIFDVHVWKH

H[DPSOHVGLVFXVVHGEHORZVKRZWKDWLQUHVLGXDOLQVWDQFHVWKHFRQVWUDLQWPD\EHVXVSHQGHGLQWKH

DYHUVH

0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6



RQWKHVHGHLFWLFSURQRXQVLQWURGXFHVFRQWUDVWEHWZHHQWKHSDVWDQGWKHSUHVHQW

GUDZLQJDVXEWOHERXQGDU\EHWZHHQELWWHUUHVLJQDWLRQDQGSDWLHQWHQGXUDQFHRI

KXPDQYLFLVVLWXGHVLQWKHOLJKWRI&KULVWLDQRUGHU

,Q DGGLWLRQ WR VXFK RXWVWDQGLQJ H[DPSOHV WKHUH DUH PDQ\ RWKHUV LQ ZKLFK

DXUDOFXHVFRLQFLGHLQDGLVFUHHWDQGQDWXUDOZD\ZLWKWKHVWUXFWXUDODQGVHPDQWLF

RUJDQL]DWLRQ RI YHUVHV $PRQJ VXFK VHPDQWLFDOO\ FKDOOHQJLQJ DQG VWUXFWXUDOO\

FRKHUHQWSDVVDJHVDUHVRPHOLQHVIURPThe WandererDQExeter BookHOHJ\ 7KH

DOOLWHUDWLYH SDWWHUQ RI WKH RSHQLQJ OLQH RI The Wanderer DFFHQWXDWHV WKH LQLWLDO

V\OODEOH RI WKH QRXQ DȸQKDJD RQH RI WKH NH\ ZRUGV GHVLJQDWLQJ WKH SULQFLSDO

SHUVRQDRIWKHSRHPVHHD$SDUDOOHOVWUXFWXUHRFFXUVDOVRLQOLQHZKHUH

YRFDOLFDOOLWHUDWLRQGUDZVDWWHQWLRQWRWKHVDPHLQWLWLDOFRPSRQHQWRIWKHFRPSRXQG

QRXQDȸQKRJDQVHHE^

The WandererOLQHVDȸQKDJDaDȸQKRJD DOLQH ÊRIWKLPÊDȸQdKDJD__ÊDȸUHJHÊELȸGH' EOLQH ÊHDUPQHÊDȸQdKRJDQ__ÊRIWJHÊELQGD'

7KHH[DFWPHDQLQJDQGRULJLQRIERWKIRUPVDȸQKDJDDQGLWVPXFKPRUH

UDUHYDULDQWDȸQKRJDDUHXQFHUWDLQ^7KH¿UVWFRQVWLWXHQWDȸQRIWHQDFWVLQ2OG

(QJOLVKDVDIXQFWLRQZRUGµDDQRQH¶DQGLVRXWVLGHWKHDOOLWHUDWLYHVFDQVLRQ

,QPDQ\FDVHVKRZHYHUDȸQDQGLWVIHPLQLQHIRUPDȸQDDFTXLUHVWKHVHQVH

DQDORJRXVWRWKH/DWLQWHUPVXQXVDQGVROXV7KLVHTXLYDOHQFHHPHUJHVLQ2OG

(QJOLVKWUDQVODWLRQVRIELEOLFDOSDVVDJHV)RUH[DPSOHWKH/DWLQSDVVXVEt ipse VROXV in terra$QGKH>ZDV@DOODORQHLQWKHODQGLVUHQGHUHGLQ2OG(QJOLVKDV2QG

he aȸnaZ VRQODQGHZKLOH'HXVXQXV scitOLW*RGLVWKHRQO\RQHZKRNQRZV EHFRPHV Metod aȸna wat7KH DVSHFW RI VROLWXGH H[SUHVVHG YLD WKH DGMHFWLYDO

FRQVWLWXHQWDȸQLVSUHVHQWLQ%HRZXOIOLQHZKHUHWKHKHUREHFRPHVearm DȸQKDJDDVWKHVROHVXUYLYRURI+\JHODF¶VUDLGRQWKH)UDQNV,QWKH2OG(QJOLVK

Phoenix OLQHVWKHELUGLVFDOOHGDȸQKRJD%HLQJXQLFDDYLV±WKHRQO\

RQHRILWVNLQGLWLVWUXO\XQLTXH6RLVWKHFUXHOGHDWK±HQJHDȸQKRJDIURPThe OLIHRI6W*XWKODFOLQH

 +HUH DQG EHORZ LH LQ SRLQWV ± WKH IROORZLQJ QRWDWLRQDO FRQYHQWLRQ KDV EHHQ XVHG

DOOLWHUDWLRQ LV PDUNHG E\ XQGHUOLQLQJ VWURQJ PHWULFDO SRVLWLRQ LH PHWULFDO OLIW LV UHSUHVHQWHG

E\ >@ ZKLFK FRUUHVSRQGV WR SULPDU\ VWUHVV >Ê@ VHFRQGDU\ VWUHVV >d@ FRLQFLGHV ZLWK KDOIOLIW >?@

XQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHVDUHPDUNHGE\DQ>[@5HVROXWLRQRIOLJKWV\OODEOHVLQDVWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQ

LVUHSUHVHQWHGE\>@)RRWERXQGDU\LVPDUNHGE\DVLQJOHYHUWLFDOOLQH>_@ZKLOHFDHVXUD±E\

DGRXEOHYHUWLFDOOLQH>__@

$FFRUGLQJWRVRPHVRXUFHVDȸQKDJDDQGDȸQKRJDPD\UHSUHVHQWWZRLQGHSHQGHQWOH[HPHV

UDWKHU WKDQ FRRFFXUULQJ YDULDQWV RI WKH VDPH ZRUG <HW 'XQQLQJ DQG %OLVV  II ZKR

GHYRWHPXFKGLVFXVVLRQWRWKHVHIRUPVFODLPWKDWµ>L@WLVLPSRVVLEOHWRGLVFHUQDQ\GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQRI

PHDQLQJFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQRIIRUP¶DQGDGGWKDWµERWKIRUPVDSSHDUDSSDUHQWO\

ZLWKLGHQWLFDOUHIHUHQFHLQThe WandererDQGThe Phoenix¶.

021,.$23$/,ē6.$



7KH DGMHFWLYH DSSHDUV LQ D VLPLODU FRPSRXQG LQ The Seafarer OLQH  – DȸQÀRJD RQH ZKR ÀLHV DORQH D VROLWDU\ ÀLHU DQG DQRWKHU RQH LQ %HRZXOI

OLQHVDQG±DȸQJHQJDRQHZKRZDONVDORQH,QERWKLQVWDQFHVWKH

VHFRQGGH¿QLQJHOHPHQWRIDFRPSRXQGFDQEHGHULYHGGLUHFWO\IURPDUHODWHG

YHUE WKDW LV ÀHRJDQ WR À\ DQG JDQJDQ WR ZDON UHVSHFWLYHO\ ,Q WKH FDVH RI

DȸQKDJDaDȸQKRJD WKHUH LV QR DJUHHPHQW ZKHWKHU WKH ¿QDO FRQVWLWXHQW VKRXOG

EHGHULYHGIURPWKHYHUEK\FJDQWRWKLQNRUUDWKHUIURPWKHQRXQKDJDIHQFH

HQFORVXUHLQWKHDEVHQFHRIDGHQRPLQDWLYHYHUE KHFJDQWRHQFORVHZKLFKLV

XQUHFRUGHG FI 'XQQLQJ DQG %OLVV   3HU DQDORJLDP WR WKH H[DPSOHV

IURP The Seafarer DQG %HRZXOI JLYHQ DERYH WKH WZR OH[LFDO HOHPHQWV WKDW LV

DȸQ DQG KDJD~KRJD VXSSRVHGO\ FRPSOHPHQW HDFK RWKHU VHPDQWLFDOO\ 7KXV

WKHDȸQKDJDPD\EHVRPHRQHZKROLNH$QGUHDVWKHVDLQWKHUPLWIURPDQ$QJOR

6D[RQSRHPE\WKHVDPHWLWOHHQFORVHVKLPVHOIWREHDOODORQHWRPHGLWDWHLQ

VHFOXVLRQFIAndreasOLQH6ROLWXGHSHFXOLDUWRHUHPLWLFDOH[LVWHQFHPD\

EHDOVRGLVFHUQHGLQD/DPEHWK3VDOWHUJORVVWRWKH/DWLQVROLWDULXVDȸQKRJDRèèH

DȸQZXQLHQGH^

0RGHUQWUDQVODWRUVRIThe Wanderer RIWHQFLUFXPYHQWWKLVDVSHFWRIORQHOLQHVV

DQGLVRODWLRQ6RPHWUDQVODWHDȸQKDJDE\WKHUHODWLYHO\QHXWUDOEXWYDJXHSKUDVH

µWKH VROLWDU\ PDQ¶ FI %DQWRFN   *RUGRQ   7UHKDUQH DQG :X

  RU µWKH PDQ RQ KLV RZQ¶ %UDGOH\   2WKHUV HTXDWH LW ZLWK

WKHIROORZLQJeardstapaZDQGHUHUOLQHFI&URVVOH\+ROODQG5DIIHO

<HWHYHQLIDȸQKDJDDQGeardstapaGHVLJQDWHWKHVDPHSHUVRQWKH

WHUPV KLJKOLJKW TXLWH GLVWLQFW TXDOLWLHV RI WKH :DQGHUHU¶V ORQHO\ H[LVWHQFH ,Q

SDUWLFXODUWKHWHUPDȸQKDJDaDȸQKRJDXVHGWZLFHLQWKHSRHPPD\GH¿QHWKH

KHUR¶VXOWLPDWHGHVLJQDWLRQ7KHDXWKRUGUDZVDWWHQWLRQWRWKHWHUPE\LQFRUSRUDWLQJ

LWLQWRWKHDOOLWHUDWLYHFRQWRXURIOLQHVDQG^7KXVVWUHVVHGDȸQKDJDIURPOLQH

RIThe WandererLVFRQMRLQHG ZLWKWKHZLVHPDQIURPWKHSRHP¶VHSLORJXHZKR

VLWV DSDUW LQ VHFUHW FRQWHPSODWLRQ VQRWWRU RQ PRGH JHV W KLP VXQGRU  W UXQH OLQH

'XQQLQJDQG%OLVV±FODLPWKDWWKHWHUPVDȸQKRJDDQGDȸQZXQLHQGHSUHVHQW

SDUWLFLSOH FI ZXQLDQ µWR OLYH WR GZHOO¶ QHHG QRW EH V\QRQ\PRXV 2Q WKH FRQWUDU\ WKH HGLWRUV

VXJJHVWWKDWWKHJORVVDWRUPD\KDYH¿UVWUHQGHUHGWKHWHFKQLFDOWHUPµKHUPLW¶DȸQKRJDDQGWKHQ

DGGWKHPRUHSURVDLFDQGHW\PRORJLFDOPHDQLQJµRQHZKROLYHVDORQH¶7KXVDȸQKDJDaDȸQKRJD PD\EH³VRPHRQHµZKRisDORQH¶LUUHVSHFWLYHRIWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVRIWKHVROLWXGH´

,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJWRQRWHWKDWeardstapaLQOLQHOLNHZLVHIRUPVSDUWRIDQDOOLWHUDWLYHSDWWHUQ

$VLQOLQHDQGDOVRLQWKLVFDVHDOOLWHUDWLRQLQYROYHVYRZHOV6ZDFZ 'ÊHDUGVWDSD__ÊHDUIH'D

JHP\QGLJ,IWKHUXOHVRI2OG,FHODQGLFYHUVL¿FDWLRQZHUHSDQ*HUPDQLFWKLVOLQHODFNVWKHSUHVFULEHG

HOHJDQFHDVWKHDOOLWHUDWLRQKHUHLQYROYHVYRFDOLFHOHPHQWVRILGHQWLFDOTXDOLW\LHWKHGLSKWKRQJ

 D $SSDUHQWO\ WKH LGHQWLW\ FRQGLWLRQ HVVHQWLDO LQ WKH FDVH RI FRQVRQDQWV ZDV VXVSHQGHG IRU

YRZHOVDWOHDVWLQ2OG,FHODQGLF$FFRUGLQJWR6QRUUL6WXUUOXVVRQWKHXVHRILGHQWLFDOYRZHOVLQDQ

DOOLWHUDWLYHOLQHZDVPLVEHJRWWHQ

0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6



%HLQJ WKH FOHDUO\ GLVFHUQLEOH HOHPHQW RI D PHWULFDO OLQH DOOLWHUDWLRQ DORQH

GRHV QRW FRQVWLWXWH LWV VNHOHWRQ 5DWKHU VRXQG UHSHWLWLRQ LV HPEHGGHG LQ WKH

LQWHJUDWHG IUDPHZRUN RI PHWULFDO VWUHVVHV ZKLFK DUH LQ WXUQ VHQVLWLYH WR WKH

OH[LFDO FRPSRQHQWV RI D JLYHQ OLQH$PRQJ WKH YHUVHV RI DQRWKHU Exeter Book HOHJ\7KH5XLQRQHFRPHVDFURVVDQDPELJXRXVSDVVDJHWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI

ZKLFK LV VWURQJO\ GHWHUPLQHG E\ LWV PHWULFDO IUDPHZRUN7KH FRQWURYHUV\ RYHU

OLQHRIWKHSRHPFRQFHUQVWKHPRUSKRV\QWDFWLFUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQWKUHHOH[LFDO

HOHPHQWVRIWKH¿UVWKHPLVWLFKweall walan ZLȸUXP6XSSRVHGO\RQHRIWKHVH

LWHPVLVDQDXWRQRPRXVOH[LFDOZRUGZKLOHWKHUHPDLQLQJWZRIRUPDQRPLQDO

FRPSRXQG ,Q WKH DEVHQFH RI DQ\ H[SOLFLW SDODHRJUDSKLFDO FXHV PRGHUQ HGLWRUV

DVVXPHRQHRIWZRSRWHQWLDOO\SODXVLEOHYDULDQWVZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP.OLQFN

RUZHDOOZDODQ ZLȸUXP0XLU^7KHVHHOHPHQWVIRUPSDUWRI

DVHQWHQFHZKLFKEHJLQVLQOLQHDQGUHIHUVWRWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHEXLOGLQJV

PRȸGPR>«@\QHVZLIWQHJHEU JGKZ WUHGLQKULQJDVK\JHURȸIJHERQGZHDOO

ZDODQZLȸUXPZXQGUXPWRJ GUH'XHWRPDQXVFULSWGDPDJHWKHWH[WLVSDUWLDOO\

ORVWEXWWKHDWWHVWHGIUDJPHQWLVODUJHHQRXJKWRUHFRQVWUXFWWKHJHQHUDOVHQVH

.OLQFN   WUDQVODWHV WKHVH OLQHV DV IROORZV ³ZLWK ZRQGURXV DUW WKH

VWRXWKHDUWHG RQH LQJHQLRXVO\ ERXQG WKH ZDOO WRJHWKHU ZLWK VWULSV RI ZLUH LQWR

FLUFXODUVWUXFWXUHV´$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQFRQFXUUHQWZLWKWKHHGLWRU¶V

UHDGLQJRIWKHGXELRXVYHUVHLHZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXPZDODQZLȸUXPDUHµPHWDO

FUDPSV¶/RRNLQJIRUDUJXPHQWVLQIDYRXURIWKLVYHUVLRQ.OLQFNUHFDOOVDVLPLODU

SKUDVHIURP%HRZXOIOLQHZLȸUXPEHZXQGHQZDODQµFUHVWZRXQGZLWK

ZLUH¶HPHQGHGWRZDOXE\.UDSS'REELHDQGwalaE\.ODHEHUDQGWZRJORVVHV

ZDODQDZLȸUDGHVFULELQJWZRVWULSVRIUDLVHGRUQDPHQWDWLRQ.LQJVDQG

wala (vibices^7KHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQZDODQDQGZLȸULQWZRRWKHUSODFHV

ZKLFKVKHXQIRUWXQDWHO\GRHVQRWVSHFLI\OHDGKHUWRFRQFOXGHWKDW³LWLVWKHVH

HOHPHQWVZKLFKVKRXOGEHWUHDWHGDVDFRPSRXQGDQGQRWweallwalan´.OLQFN



$OWHUQDWLYHO\walanPD\VWDQGIRUµIRXQGDWLRQ¶UDWKHUWKDQµVWULSVRIZLUH¶

RU µFUDPSV¶ ,Q FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK weall LW ZRXOG WKHQ GHVLJQDWH WKH EDVH RI

DEXLOGLQJRUWKHXQGHUO\LQJIUDPHZRUNRIWKHZDOOZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP*UHLQ

±ZKR¿UVWSURSRVHGWKLVVROXWLRQRQWKHEDVLVRI2OG(QJOLVKZ\UW

walanJORVVLQJ/DWLQradices URRWVZDVIROORZHGE\PRVWHGLWRUVQRWDEO\E\

0XLU7KHVKLIWRIPRUSKRV\QWDFWLFERXQGDU\FKDQJHVWKHPHDQLQJRIWKH

SDVVDJHVLJQL¿FDQWO\.OLQFN¶VUHDGLQJRIYHUVHDVXJJHVWVWKDWLWZDVWKHRXWHU

SDUW RI WKH ZDOO ZKLFK ZDV ZRXQG RU VWUHQJWKHQHG ZLWK ZLUH FUDPSV SHUKDSV

LQ DQ RUQDPHQWDO ZD\ *UHLQ¶V LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ E\ FRQWUDVW LPSOLHV WKDW WKH ZDOO

EDVHRULWVIRXQGDWLRQZHDOOZDODQZDVERXQGZLWKZLUHZLȸUXP$GMXVWLQJ

$QJOR6D[RQVFULEHVUHSUHVHQWHGFRPSRXQGIRUPDWLRQVLQWKHVDPHZD\DVSKUDVHVWKDWLV

HDFKOH[LFDOFRQVWLWXHQWZDVZULWWHQVHSDUDWHO\

)RUIXUWKHUGHWDLOVDQGUHIHUHQFHVVHH.OLQFN± 021,.$23$/,ē6.$



.OLQFN¶VRZQZRUGVFLWHGDERYHWRWKLVDOWHUQDWLYHUHDGLQJRQHPD\WUDQVODWH

WKHHQWLUHVHFWLRQLQWKHIROORZLQJZD\µZLWKZRQGURXVDUWWKHVWRXWKHDUWHGRQH

LQJHQLRXVO\ ERXQG WKH IRXQGDWLRQV RI WKH ZDOO WRJHWKHU ZLWK ZLUH LQWR FLUFXODU

VWUXFWXUHV¶$SSDUHQWO\WKHDOWHUDWLRQLVQRWWKDWLPSRUWDQW<HWFRQVLGHULQJWKH

XQLTXHO\GHVFULSWLYHFKDUDFWHURIWKLVSRHPDQGWKHDFFXPXODWLRQRIDUFKLWHFWXUDO

GHWDLOV RQH FDQQRW KHOS WKLQNLQJ WKDW UHSUHVHQWDWLRQDO DFFXUDF\ ZDV RQH RI LWV

DXWKRU¶VLQWHQWLRQV

$SSDUHQWO\ERWKRSWLRQVZHDOOZDODQZLȸȸȸUXPDQGZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP

VHHPWREHDFFHSWDEOH,QWKHIRUPHUWKHVWURQJPDVFXOLQHQRXQweallDFFVJ LVWKHREMHFWRIWKHYHUEJHERQGVJSDVWWHQVHZKLOHWKHSXWDWLYHFRPSRXQG

ZDODQZLȸUXPGDWSOSOD\VWKHLQVWUXPHQWDOUROHRIWKHDGYHUELDORIPDQQHU

,QWKHODWWHUWKHDGYHUELDOIXQFWLRQLVLPSOHPHQWHGE\ZLȸUXPDORQHZKLOHWKH

QRPLQDOFRPSRXQGZHDOOZDODQEHFRPHVWKHREMHFWRIJHERQG%HLQJWKHVHFRQG

FRPSRQHQWRIWKHFRPSRXQGIRUPDWLRQ– walanGH¿QHVLWVJUDPPDWLFDOIXQFWLRQ

$VWKHFODXVHGLUHFWREMHFWLWRXJKWWREHUHQGHUHGLQWKHDFFXVDWLYH$VVXPLQJ

WKDW ± an LV QRW SDUW RI WKH URRWVWHP EXW UHSUHVHQWV DQ LQÀHFWLRQDO VXI¿[ WKLV

LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ VHHPV HQWLUHO\ SODXVLEOH 2WKHU IRUPV RI WKH ZRUG LQFOXGLQJ WKH

H[DPSOHVTXRWHGDERYHLPSO\WKDWwalanPD\KDYHUHSUHVHQWHGDQREOLTXHFDVH

ZKLOHWKHQRPLQDWLYHIRUPPD\KDYHEHHQwalaRUZDOX7KLVPXVWKDYHEHHQWKH

LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI HDUO\ HGLWRUV ZKR HPHQGHG WKH DWWHVWHG PDQXVFULSW IRUPV DQG

OH[LFRJUDSKHUVZKRSRVLWWKHIRUPweallwala LQWKHLUGLFWLRQDU\HQWULHVFI&ODUN

+DOO,QYLHZRIWKHVHFRPSDUDWLYHGDWDWKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWwalan UHSUHVHQWVDQLQÀHFWHGIRUPVHHPVFRPSHOOLQJ

<HWWKHHYLGHQFHEDVHGRQWKHDWWHVWHGJORVVHVLVFRQIXVLQJ,QRQHFDVH/DWLQ

QRPLQDWLYHSOXUDOradicesLVH[SUHVVHGYLD2OG(QJOLVKwalaZKLOHLQWKHRWKHU

WKH VDPH JUDPPDWLFDO FDVH DQG QXPEHU vibices) LV UHQGHUHG LQ WKH YHUQDFXODU

E\±walan7ZRSDUWLDOO\FRPSOHPHQWDU\DQVZHUVWRWKHSX]]OHVHHPSODXVLEOH

)LUVWWKHIRUPVPD\UHSUHVHQWLQGHSHQGHQWOH[HPHVVWURQJIHPLQLQHZDOXQRP

DFF SO walawale DQG ZHDN PDVFXOLQH wala QRPDFF SO walan 6HFRQG

KLVWRULFDOO\ UHODWHG IRUPV PD\ KDYH GHYHORSHG GLIIHUHQW SDUDGLJPDWLF YDULDQWV

ZLWKLQGHSHQGHQWFDVHDQGJHQGHUGLVWLQFWLRQV7KLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQLVFRPSDWLEOH

ZLWKWKHGDWDJLYHQLQ&ODUN+DOOZKROLVWVDIHPLQLQHQRXQZDOX

ULGJHEDQNULEFRPERIDKHOPHWZHDOPDUNRIDEORZWHQWDWLYHO\VXJJHVWLQJ

WKDWWKLVPLJKWEHWKHIRUPXVHGLQOLQHRI%HRZXOI,QDQLQGHSHQGHQWOH[LFDO

HQWU\&ODUN+DOOJLYHVDPDVFXOLQHQRXQwyrtwalaURRWVWRFNEDVHORZHUSDUW

ZKLFKLVIROORZHGE\DIHZDOWHUQDWLYHYDULDQWVQRWDEO\DIHPLQLQHIRUPZ\UWZDOX

Weallwala VSHFL¿HG DV D PDVFXOLQH QRXQ LV GH¿QHG DV µSDUW RI D KRXVH ZDOO

IRXQGDWLRQ¶viaUHIHUHQFHWROLQHLQ7KH5XLQ*HQGHUYDULDWLRQW\SLFDORIPDQ\

YHUQDFXODUVXEVWDQWLYHVPD\KDYHSDUWO\FRQWULEXWHGWRWKHFRQIXVLRQRUOH[LFDO

LQWHUFKDQJHRIWKLVUHODWLYHO\UDUHQRXQ

0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6



7KH VWDQGDUG GLFWLRQDU\ RI 2OG (QJOLVK E\ %RVZRUWK DQG 7ROOHU  GLIIHUHQWLDWHVEHWZHHQwalVRPHSDUWRIDKHOPHWVXSSRVHGO\DFRJQDWHRIODWHU

0LGGOH+LJK*HUPDQZ OZ OHFRQWULYDQFHIRUIDVWHQLQJWKHFUHVWRIDKHOPHW DQGDZHDNPDVFXOLQHwala (-anZLWKWKHEDVLFVHQVHµURRW¶DQGLWVPHWDSKRULFDO

H[WHQWLRQad ( W) walan ³WRWKHURRWRIWKHPDWWHUWRFHUWDLQW\´DGOLTXLGXP

7KH SUHVHQFH RI TXHVWLRQ PDUNV QH[W WR ERWK HQWULHV LPSOLHV WKDW WKH SURSRVHG

GH¿QLWLRQV DUH SODXVLEOH EXW QRW FHUWDLQ <HW WKH DXWKRUV DVVRFLDWH WKH ¿UVW

IRUP Z O XQVSHFL¿HG IRU JUDPPDWLFDO JHQGHU ZLWK WKH WHUP XVHG LQ %HRZXOI

HPHQGLQJWKHDWWHVWHGPDQXVFULSWLQVFULSWLRQDSSURSULDWHO\LH<PEè VKHOPHV

KURI KHDIRGEHRUJH ZLUXP EHZXQGHQ ZDO DQ XWDQ (ZDODQ XWDQ 0V heold DQG

WUDQVODWLQJWKHHQWLUHSDVVDJHDVIROORZV³DERXWWKHKHOP¶VWRSDµZDO¶ZLUHJLUW

JXDUGHGRQWKHRXWVLGHWKHKHDG¶VGHIHQFHLHWKHKHOPHW´FI%RVZRUWK7ROOHU

  7KH GLFWLRQDU\ IXUWKHU SURYLGHV VHYHUDO UHODWHG PHDQLQJV IRU WKH

FRPSRXQGwyrtwalaLHWKHURRWRIDSODQWDURRWVRXUFHWKHIRRWRIDKLOOORZHU

VLGHRIDZRRG¿HOGHWFDWWHVWLQJLWVDOWHUQDWLYHSDUDGLJPDWLFYDULDQWVWKDWLV

ZHDNPDVFXOLQHwyrtwalaanDQGIHPLQLQHZ\UWZDOXe$OVRKHUHweallwala LVWUHDWHGDVDZHDNPDVFXOLQHFRPSRXQGPHDQLQJµZDOOIRXQGDWLRQ¶%RVZRUWK

7ROOHU$TXHVWLRQPDUNDGGHGWRWKLVHQWU\OLNHZLVHLPSOLHVWKDWWKH

SURSRVHGPHDQLQJLVQRWGH¿QLWLYH

.OLQFN¶V UHVROXWLRQ WR WUHDW ZDODQZLȸUXP DV D FRPSRXQG LQVWHDG RI WKH

JHQHUDOO\DFFHSWHGDOWHUQDWLYHZHDOOZDODQJRHVDJDLQVWGLFWLRQDU\HYLGHQFH7R

EHVXUHOH[LFRJUDSKHUVPDQLIHVWWKHFRQMHFWXUDOFKDUDFWHURIWKHODWWHUE\SRVLWLQJ

TXHVWLRQPDUNVDORQJVLGHWKHSURSRVHGJUDPPDWLFDOGHWDLOVDQGGH¿QLWLRQV<HW

KRZHYHUVFDUFHDQGGLYHUJHQWWKHDWWHVWHGH[DPSOHVFRQVWLWXWHDIUDPHRIUHIHUHQFH

IRU WKH FRPSRQHQWLDO DQDO\VLV RI WKH WHUP &UXFLDOO\ WKH\ LPSO\ WKDW WKH IRUP

walan XVHG LQ 7KH 5XLQ LV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ FRPSOH[ .OLQFN VHHPV WR LJQRUH

WKLVSUREOHPHQWLUHO\HYHQWKRXJKWKHSURSRVHGYDULDQWYLRODWHVWKHUXOHVRIZRUG

IRUPDWLRQZKLFKUHTXLUHWKDWWKH¿UVWHOHPHQWRIDFRPSRXQGEHXQLQÀHFWHG,Q

IDFWWKHDEVHQFHRIDQLQÀHFWLRQDOVXI¿[PDNHVLWSRVVLEOHWRGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQ

DWUXHFRPSRXQGIURPDSKUDVDOJURXS^7KLVDVSHFWJDLQVSDUWLFXODUVLJQL¿FDQFH

LQWKHOLJKWRIURXWLQHVFULEDOSUDFWLFHWRUHSUHVHQWWKHOH[LFDOFRPSRQHQWVRIDWUXH

FRPSRXQGRQHE\RQHDVLIWKH\ZHUHDXWRQRPRXVPRUSKRORJLFDOO\LQGHSHQGHQW

ZRUGV$VVXPLQJ WKDW an LQ walan LV DQ LQÀHFWLRQDO HQGLQJ DQ RSWLRQ ZKLFK

FDQQRWEHH[FOXGHGDSXWDWLYHFRPSRXQGZDODQZLȸUXPLVLOOIRUPHG

,QVRPHFDVHVDSKUDVHLVPRGHOOHGRQDWUXHFRPSRXQGDVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHVIURP

%HRZXOIIROFHVFZHȸQOLQHYHUVXVIROFFZHȸQOLQHRUEHȸDJDKRUGOLQHYHUVXV

EHȸDJKRUGHV0DQXVFULSWUHQGLWLRQRIERWKJURXSVLVWKHVDPHQDPHO\HDFKZRUGLVZULWWHQ

VHSDUDWHO\,QWKHDEVHQFHRIDQ\SDODHRJUDSKLFDOFXHVLQÀHFWLRQDOVXI¿[HVKHUHesLQfolces DQG

-aLQEHȸDJDPDUNWKHVHLWHPVDVDXWRQRPRXVQRXQVIRUPLQJSKUDVDOXQLWVZLWKFZHȸQDQGhord

UHVSHFWLYHO\ %\FRQWUDVWWKHVDPHOH[LFDOIRUPVUHPDLQXQLQÀHFWHGZKHQXVHGDVIUHHPRUSKHPHV

LQDFRPSRXQG

021,.$23$/,ē6.$



7KHZDODQZLȸUXPK\SRWKHVLVKLQJHVPDLQO\RQIDLUO\OD[VHPDQWLFSDUDOOHOV

DQGVLPLODUOH[LFDOFROORFDWLRQV$SSDUHQWO\LWLVVXSSRUWHGE\PHWULFDODQDO\VLV

.OLQFNSLQSRLQWVWKHIDFWWKDWWKHQHZO\JHQHUDWHGIRUP³JLYHVD'W\SHYHUVH>«@

ZLWKUHVROYHGVWUHVVLQWKHVHFRQGOLIW´.OLQFNI7KHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ

LQEHORZLQGLFDWHVWKDWVXFKDQDQDO\VLVLVLQGHHGSRVVLEOH5HVROXWLRQRIWKH

OLJKWV\OODEOHLQwalanH[SHFWHGLQWKHVWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQFRPSUHVVHVWZR

DGMDFHQW V\OODEOHV WR RQH PHWULFDOO\ UHOHYDQW JUDGH $V D UHVXOW WKH HPHUJLQJ

PHWULFDO FRQWRXU LPSOHPHQWV 6LHYHUV¶ EDVLF ' SDWWHUQ lift OLIW UHVROYHG

KDOIOLIWdrop

(2) 7KH5XLQOLQH ZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP

6LHYHUV¶7\SH'ZLWKUHVROYHGVWUHVV_[?[ÊZHDOOÊZDODQdZLȸUXP .OLQFNGRHVQRWGHYHORSWKHPHWULFDODUJXPHQWEXWFDUHIXODQDO\VLVRIWKH

DOWHUQDWLYH UHDGLQJ ± ZHDOOZDODQ ZLȸUXP ± DFFHSWHG E\ PRVW HGLWRUV UHYHDOV

XQH[SHFWHGSUREOHPV$VWKHVHFRQGFRQVWLWXHQWRIDOH[LFDOFRPSRXQGwalanQRZ

EHDUV VHFRQGDU\ VWUHVV 3UHGLFWDEO\ WKH IROORZLQJ QRXQ ZLȸUXP RFFXSLHV WKH

VWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQDQGLWVKHDY\LQLWLDOV\OODEOHFDUULHVSULPDU\VWUHVV7KH

HPHUJLQJSDWWHUQRIVWUHVVHGDQGXQVWUHVVHGHOHPHQWVUHSUHVHQWHGLQDLVQRW

FRPSDWLEOHZLWKDQ\RIWKHW\SHVUHFRJQL]HGLQWKH6LHYHUVLDQPRGHO,WVPHWULFDO

FRQWRXUVKRZVVRPHDI¿QLWLHVZLWK7\SH(WKHEDVLFIRUPRIZKLFKLQFOXGHVlift

KDOIOLIWGURSDQGlift?[EXWWKHUHLVDVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFH7KHPHWULFDO

VFDQVLRQLQDHQGVLQDQXQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHDSKHQRPHQRQXQUHFRUGHGLQWKH

H[DPSOHVUHSUHVHQWLQJ7\SH($SSDUHQWO\DVLPLODUFDVHRFFXUVLQYHUVHDRI

The Battle of Maldon ZKLFK HQGV LQ ELV\OODELF QRXQ EUHJX VRYHUHLJQ FKLHI

+RZHYHUDVVKRZQLQEWKHLQLWLDOV\OODEOHRIEUHJXLVOLJKWDQGWKXVUHVROYHG

7KLV PHDQV WKDW WKH WZR V\OODEOHV RI EUHJX FRXQW DV RQH DQG FRPELQH WR IRUP

DVWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQ7KLVPHFKDQLVPGRHVQRWDSSO\WRZLȸUXPIURPD

EHFDXVHKHUHWKHLQLWLDOV\OODEOHLVKHDY\^

(3) 7KH5XLQYHUVHDYHUVXVThe Battle of MaldonYHUVHD

D?[_[ ÊZHDOOdZDODQÊZLȸUXP E?[_[ Ê1RU'dPDQQDÊEUHJX

7KHSUHVHQFHRIWKUHHVWUHVVHGZRUGVweallwalanZLȸUXPLQYHUVHDRI

7KH5XLQDQGFUXFLDOO\WKHXQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHLQWKH¿QDOSRVLWLRQRIWKHPHWULFDO

GRPDLQPDNHWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQDVXVSHFW$OWKRXJK6LHYHUVLGHQWL¿HVWZR

IXUWKHUVXEW\SHVRI7\SH(QHLWKHURIWKHVHHQGVLQDPHWULFDOGURS,QIDFWLWLV

7KHLQLWLDOV\OODEOHRIwalanDLVQRWUHVROYHGHYHQWKRXJKLWLVOLJKWEHFDXVHLWRFFXSLHV

DZHDNPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQ$UJXDEO\UHVROXWLRQRIV\OODEOHVFDUU\LQJVHFRQGDU\VWUHVVLVYHU\UDUHVHH

3RSHIQ

0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6



'W\SHYHUVHWKDWUHJXODUO\WHUPLQDWHVLQDQXQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOH±DGHWDLOZKLFK

VHHPVWRVXSSRUW.OLQFN¶VDQDO\VLVUHSUHVHQWHGLQ8QIRUWXQDWHO\DVDUJXHG

DERYHWKHODWWHULQWHUSUHWDWLRQOHDGVWRVHULRXVJUDPPDWLFDOLQFRQJUXLW\7KHUHIRUH

WKHIXQGDPHQWDOTXHVWLRQLVZKHWKHUWKHPHWULFDOJUDPPDWLFDOPLVPDWFKRFFXUULQJ

LQYHUVHDRI7KH5XLQFDQEHVRPHKRZUHFRQFLOHG

$FFRUGLQJ WR VRPH PHWULVWV ³LW PD\ EH XQFOHDU ZKHWKHU FHUWDLQ YHUVHV

FRPSULVLQJ WKUHH VWUHVVHG ZRUGV VKRXOG EH FODVVL¿HG DV EHORQJLQJ WR W\SH '

RUW\SH(´3RSH5HODWLYHO\FOHDUFDVHVLQYROYHYHUVHVZLWKGRXEOH

DOOLWHUDWLRQVHHDE^

([DPSOHVRI6LHYHUV¶7\SH'DQG7\SH(YHUVHVZLWKGRXEOHDOOLWHUDWLRQ D7\SH'_[[?ÊHDOGÊHQWDJHdZHRUF The WandererYHUVHD E7\SH( ?[_ÊWZHOIdZLQWUDÊWiȸG%HRZXOIYHUVHD

6WUXFWXUDOO\SDUDOOHOYHUVHVZLWKVLQJOHDOOLWHUDWLRQDUHOHVVVWUDLJKWIRUZDUG

0HWULFDO RSDFLW\ LQ VXFK LQVWDQFHV PD\ VRPHWLPHV EH FOHDUHG E\ V\QWDFWLF DQG

VHPDQWLFLQWHJULW\6\QWDFWLFUHODWLRQVLQSDUWLFXODUWHQGWREHPRUHVWULFWZLWKLQ

D PHWULFDO IRRW WKDQ DFURVV IRRW ERXQGDULHV )RU H[DPSOH YHUVH E IURP The SeafarerK JOVFXUXPÀHȸDJKDLOIHOOLQVKRZHUVLVDQH[WHQVLRQRI7\SH'

EHFDXVH VFXȸUXP GDW SO LV XVHG DGYHUELDOO\ DQG PRGL¿HV WKH YHUE ÀHȸDJ VJSDVWWHQVHVHHD%\FRQWUDVWYHUVHEIURPThe Dream of the Rood

IHODHDOUDJHEDȸGRIWKHVHPDQ\H[SHULHQFHGUHSUHVHQWVW\SH(ZLWKUHVROXWLRQ

RIWKHLQLWLDOV\OODEOHVLQFHWKHDGMHFWLYHealraJHQSOGHSHQGVRQfelaSURQ

XVXDOO\ZLWKJHQVHHE

6\QWDFWLFLQWHJULW\ZLWKLQYHUVH

D7\SH'_[? K JOVFXȸUXPÀHȸDJ The SeafarerYHUVHE

E7\SH([?[_[IHODHDOUDJHEDȸGThe Dream of the Rood

       YHUVHE

6RPHYHUVHVIRUH[DPSOHDVLQVRUJQDJHGUHȸDJWKHPXOWLWXGHRISHUSHWXDO

VRUURZIURPThe Wife’s LamentDUHDPELJXRXVVHH%HLQJDFRPSRXQGVLQ

VRUJQDJHQSOVKRXOG¿OOWKH¿UVWIRRWDVLQ7\SH(WRHQVXUHV\QWDFWLFLQWHJULW\

RIWKHYHUVH$VORQJDVWKLVDVSHFWLVJLYHQSULRULW\WKHYHUVHPD\EHDQDO\VHGDV

7\SH(ZLWKIRRWERXQGDU\IROORZLQJVRUJQDVHHD+RZHYHUVLQFHERWKOH[LFDO

HOHPHQWV EHJLQ ZLWK WKH VDPH FRQVRQDQW WKH\ SRWHQWLDOO\ IRUP DQ DOOLWHUDWLYH

VHTXHQFH)RRWGLYLVLRQLQ7\SH(LQHYLWDEO\HQIRUFHVGRXEOHDOOLWHUDWLRQLQWKH

¿UVWIRRW0RUHRYHUWKHVHFRQGDOOLWHUDWLRQXQLWDQFKRUVDQLOOLFLWFDQGLGDWHVLQFH

7KHH[DPSOHVJLYHQLQDQGDUHTXRWHGDIWHU3RSHI7KHYHUVHLQDLV

DYDULDWLRQRIWKHEDVLF7\SH'WKH¿QDOXQDFFHQWHGV\OODEOHFKDQJLQJSODFHZLWKWKHVHFRQGDU\

DFFHQW$SDUDOOHOH[WHQVLRQRIWKHEDVLFW\SHLVDWWHVWHGLQDEHORZ

021,.$23$/,ē6.$



VRUJQD LQ FRQWUDGLVWLQFWLRQ WR JHGUHDJ FDUULHV VHFRQGDU\ VWUHVV DQG WKXV ¿OOV

DUHODWLYHO\ZHDNHUPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQ,QRUGHUWRVDWLVI\WKHDOOLWHUDWLYHFRQVWUDLQW

WKHIRRWERXQGDU\VKRXOGSUHFHGHVRUJQDVHHE&OHDUO\WKHUHVXOWLQJVWUXFWXUH

LQWURGXFHVDVHULRXVPLVPDWFKEHFDXVHIRRWERXQGDU\GRHVQRWFRLQFLGHZLWKZRUG

LHFRPSRXQGERXQGDU\+HQFHELVQRWDVDWLVIDFWRU\DOWHUQDWLYH

 0HWULFDO DQG V\QWDFWLF PLVPDWFK VLQVRUJQD JHGUHȸDJ Wife’s Lament

YHUVHD

D7\SH( ?[_[ÊVLQdVRUJQDJHÊGUHȸDJ

E7\SH' _[[?ÊVLQÊVRUJQDJHdGUHȸDJ

9HUVHV VXFK DV D IURP The Wife’s Lament DUH UHODWLYHO\ UDUH EHFDXVH

FRPSRXQGIRUPDWLRQVVHOGRPEHJLQZLWKLGHQWLFDOSKRQHWLFHOHPHQWV&RPSOH[

YHUVHSDWWHUQVZKLFKFRQWDLQWKUHHSRWHQWLDOO\DOOLWHUDWLQJZRUGVLPSO\WKDWZLWKLQ

WKHVDPHGRPDLQVRPHOH[LFDOHOHPHQWVPXVWKDYHEHHQPHWULFDOO\VXERUGLQDWH

6LHYHUV¶FODVVL¿FDWRU\PRGHOLVQRWHTXLSSHGZLWKDQDSSURSULDWHPHFKDQLVPWR

FDSWXUHKLHUDUFKLFDORUJDQL]DWLRQDERYHWKHEDVLFOHYHO,WFDQGLIIHUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQ

V\OODEOHVFDUU\LQJSULPDU\DQGVHFRQGDU\VWUHVVDQGWKHXQVWUHVVHGRQHVEXWLWLV

XQDEOHWRJLYHWKHUDWLRQDOHIRUWKH¿QHGLVWLQFWLRQVLQWKRVHFDVHVZKHUHPHWULFV

DQGV\QWD[DUHLUUHFRQFLODEOHRUDWOHDVWFRQWURYHUVLDO&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHHYDOXDWLRQ

RIGLVSXWDEOHYHUVHVLVLQHYLWDEO\DUELWUDU\ZLWKLQWKLVSDUDGLJP

,QDQRQOLQHDUWKHRU\RIPHWULFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQZKLFKTXDOL¿HVFRUUHODWLRQ

EHWZHHQPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQVDQGWKHLUIXQFWLRQVXFKVHHPLQJO\FRUUXSWRULUUHJXODU

YHUVHV EHFRPH OHJLWLPDWH $PRQJ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQDO PRGHOV 5XVVRP¶V ZRUG

EDVHGWKHRU\RIPHWUHVHHPVWREHHTXLSSHGZLWKDGHTXDWHWRROV

WR DFFRXQW IRU VXFK FRQWURYHUVLDO FDVHV 5XVVRP¶V WUHHVWUXFWXUHV JURXQGHG LQ

SDWWHUQVRIPHWULFDOSURPLQHQFHZKLFKZHUHRXWOLQHGE\.XU\áRZLF]DUH

EDVHGRQUHODWLRQVZLWKLQPHWULFDOGRPDLQVLHIRRWDQGYHUVH$FFRUGLQJO\WKH

UXOH RI DOOLWHUDWLRQ VWDWHV ³>Z@KHQ WZR PHWULFDO FRQVWLWXHQWV DSSHDU ZLWKLQ WKH

VDPH PHWULFDO GRPDLQ DQG HDFK FRQVWLWXHQW FRQWDLQV D SULPDU\ DUVLV ODEHO WKH

¿UVWFRQVWLWXHQWVWURQJDQGWKHVHFRQGZHDNDQGPDUNWKHOHIWPRVWSULPDU\DUVLV

IRU DOOLWHUDWLRQ´ 5XVVRP  ^ 5XVVRP LOOXVWUDWHV WKH PHFKDQLVP ZLWK

D QXPEHU RI UHJXODU H[DPSOHV LQFOXGLQJ OHȸRI OHȸRGF\QLQJ µEHORYHG QDWLRQ

NLQJ¶%HRZXOI YHUVHDZKHUHIRRWERXQGDULHVFRLQFLGHZLWKZRUGERXQGDULHV

DQGDOOLWHUDWLYHHOHPHQWVRFFXULQGHIDXOWSRVLWLRQVHYHQO\GLVWULEXWHGLQHDFKIRRW

*LYHQWKHKLHUDFKLFDOVWUXFWXUHLQDDOOLWHUDWLRQLVEORFNHGRQF\QLQJGXHWR

$V5XVVRPH[SODLQVWKHSURSRVHGUXOHRIDOOLWHUDWLRQ³GRHVQRWDSSO\WRWKH

VWUHVVHGV\OODEOHVRIWKHDFWXDOSKRQHWLFPDWHULDOUDWKHUWRWKHVWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQVRFFXSLHGE\

WKRVHVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHV´7RSDUDSKUDVH.XU\áRZLF]±DOOLWHUDWLRQVKRXOGEHUHJDUGHG

DV³DSRHWLFLVHGYHUVLRQRIWKH2OG(QJOLVKFRPSRXQGVWUHVVUXOH´

0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6

20

GHHSHPEHGGLQJRIWKHQRXQZKLFKLVGRPLQDWHGE\WZRZHDNQRGHV,QFRQWUDVW

WRDWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQEDOORZVIRURSWLRQDOWKUHHHOHPHQWDOOLWHUDWLRQ²⁰ 6LQFH WKH PDMRU FRQVWLWXHQW EUHDN IDOOV DIWHU WKH VHFRQG VWUHVVHG V\OODEOH WKLV

WUHHGLDJUDPLVVLJQL¿FDQWO\GLIIHUHQW1RWDEO\WKHWKLUGOH[LFDOHOHPHQWZKLFK

LPSOHPHQWVWKHVHFRQGIRRWPD\RSWLRQDOO\DOOLWHUDWHEHFDXVHLWLVGRPLQDWHGE\

DVLQJOHZHDNQRGH

$OOLWHUDWLRQLQDWUHHVWUXFWXUDOPRGHOFI5XVVRP DOHȸRIOHȸRGF\QLQJ  EV\QVQ ȸGXPVZHDOK

S S

 6 :  6 : 

  6:  6:

OHȸRI OHȸRGF\QLQJ V\QVQ ȸGXPVZHDOK

5HWXUQLQJWRWKHGXELRXVDYHUVHIURP7KH5XLQLWLVZRUWKUHFRQVLGHULQJ

LWV VWDWXV LQ WKH OLJKW RI WKH WUHHVWUXFWXUDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ $SSDUHQWO\ LQ WKH

WUDGLWLRQDO6LHYHUVLDQV\VWHPWKLVYHUVHVHHPVWRLPSOHPHQW7\SH'ZHDOOZDODQ

ZLȸUXP +RZHYHU WKLV FODVVL¿FDWLRQ LV LPSDLUHG E\ WKH IDFW WKDW LW HQIRUFHV

D PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQFRUUHFW VWUXFWXUH DV walan SUHVXPDEO\ DQ LQÀHFWHG IRUP

DFFVJLVHQWUDSSHGLQWKHZRUGLQWHUQDOSRVLWLRQ7KHDOWHUQDWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ

ZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXPUHSDLUVWKHPRUSKRORJLFDOVWUXFWXUHEXWJHQHUDWHVDPHWULFDO

SDWWHUQLQFRPSDWLEOHZLWKDQ\ RIWKHW\SHV<HWRXWVLGH6LHYHUV¶WD[RQRP\WKH

ODWWHUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQJDLQVZHLJKW

7KH YDULDQW SURSRVHG E\ .OLQFN ZHDOO ZDODQZLȸUXP IDFHV D VHULRXV

REVWDFOHLQWKHQRQOLQHDUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVHHD9HUVHLQWHUQDOGLYLVLRQUHÀHFWV

WKH SURYLVLRQDOO\ VWLSXODWHG PDMRU FRQVWLWXHQW EUHDN DQG GH¿QHV IRRW GRPDLQV

6LQFHWKHYHUVHDSSHDUVLQWKH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHOLQHWKHKLJKHVWQRGHLVPDUNHG

DVVWURQJ7KH¿UVWIRRWLPSOHPHQWHGE\WKHGLUHFWREMHFWweallLVDOVRPDUNHG

VWURQJZKLOHWKHVHFRQGIRRWEHLQJKHDY\DQGEUDQFKLQJFRQWDLQVWZRPHWULFDO

FRQVWLWXHQWVwalan6DQGZLȸUXP:ZKLFKUHSUHVHQWWKHDGYHUELDO%HLQJ

WKHODVWHOHPHQWRIWKHOHIWKHDGHGWUHHZLȸUXPLVLWVZHDNHVWEUDQFKGRPLQDWHG

E\WZRZHDNQRGHV7KHPRGHOSUHGLFWVWKDWDGRXEO\HPEHGGHGQRXQZKLFKLV

WKHZHDNFRQVWLWXHQWRIDZHDNFRQVWLWXHQWQHYHUDOOLWHUDWHV,QGHHGVWUXFWXUDOO\

VLPLODUH[DPSOHVIURP%HRZXOIVDWLVI\WKLVFRQVWUDLQW,QIDFW5XVVRP

20 ,Q WKH IROORZLQJ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV LH  DQG  6 VWDQGV IRU WKH µVWURQJ QRGHSRVLWLRQ¶

:±IRUµWKHZHDNQRGHSRVLWLRQ¶7KHDVVRFLDWLRQOLQHVERWKVLQJOHDQGEUDQFKLQJUHYHDOKLHUDUFKLFDO

UHODWLRQVDQGGHSHQGHQFLHVEHWZHHQKLJKHUDQGORZHUQRGHVZLWKLQWKHDYHUVH

021,.$23$/,ē6.$



FODLPVWKDWµWKLVW\SHRIDKDOIOLQHQHYHUKDVWZRDOOLWHUDWLQJV\OODEOHVLQWKHKHDY\

VHFRQG IRRW¶ +HQFH WKH SURSRVHG VWUXFWXUDO GLYLVLRQ RI WKH PDMRU FRQVWLWXHQWV

FRQWUDGLFWVWKHDWWHVWHGGDWD

7KH DOWHUQDWLYH VROXWLRQ E\ FRQWUDVW FRPSOLHV ZLWK WKH WKHRU\ SUHGLFWLRQV

VHHE7KHFRQVWLWXHQWEUHDNSRVLWHGDIWHUwalanPDNHVWKH¿UVWIRRWKHDY\,WV

WZRHOHPHQWVweallDQGwalan¿OOWKHVWURQJDQGWKHZHDNQRGHVUHVSHFWLYHO\

7KHVHFRQGIRRWLVOLJKWDQGGRPLQDWHGE\DVLQJOHZHDNQRGH±ZLȸUXP&OHDUO\

WKHQXPEHURIDOOLWHUDWLQJVHJPHQWVUHPDLQVWKHVDPHEXWWKH\DUHVWUXFWXUDOO\

MXVWL¿HG&UXFLDOO\QRQHRIWKHDOOLWHUDWLQJZRUGVLVGRPLQDWHGE\WZRZHDNQRGHV

,Q VXFK FRPSOH[ YHUVHV DOOLWHUDWLRQ LV REOLJDWRU\ RQ WKH OHIWPRVW VWURQJ QRGH

2SWLRQDODOOLWHUDWLRQPD\RFFXS\WKHVHFRQGIRRWZKLFKLVWKHZHDNFRQVWLWXHQW

RIDVWURQJFRQVWLWXHQW+RZHYHUDOOLWHUDWLRQLVQRWSUHFOXGHGRQWKHPRUHGHHSO\

HPEHGGHG ZHDN FRQVWLWXHQW RI WKH ¿UVW IRRW HLWKHU EHFDXVH LW LV GRPLQDWHG E\

DVWURQJQRGHRQWKHKLJKHUOHYHO

(8) 7KH5XLQYHUVHDZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXPLQQRQOLQHDUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ DZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP   EZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP

 6  6

6  :     6 :

  6 :   6 :

ZHDOOZDODQ ZLȸUXP  ZHDOO ZDODQZLȸUXP

7KHRU\GULYHQ DUJXPHQW PD\ QRW EH GHFLVLYH LQ LWVHOI EXW LW FDUULHV PRUH

ZHLJKWLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKWKHJUDPPDWLFDODQGOH[LFDOHYLGHQFH.OLQFN¶VUHDGLQJ

WKRXJKFRPSDWLEOHZLWKDQDWWHVWHGPHWULFDOSDWWHUQLJQRUHVWKHOLQJXLVWLFFXHV

HQWLUHO\7KHRULJLQDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIYHUVHDQDPHO\ZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP

IRXQGHG RQ WKH ORQJVWDQGLQJ SKLORORJLFDO DQG HGLWRULDO WUDGLWLRQ VHHPV WR EH

HQGRUVHG E\ ERWK WKH OLQJXLVWLF GDWD DQG DQ DOWHUQDWLYH PHWULFDO DQDO\VLV %RWK

YDULDQWV DUH ODUJHO\ FRQMHFWXUDO<HW E VWUHQJWKHQHG E\ UHDVRQLQJ EDVHG RQ

LQGHSHQGHQWJURXQGVVHHPVPRUHFRJHQW

9HUVHV ZLWK FRPSOH[ DOOLWHUDWLYH FRQWRXU OLNH E DUH QRW FRPPRQ ,Q

IDFW WKH\ IRUP PHWULFDO UHVLGXH<HW WKHLU VFDUFLW\ IROORZV IURP WKH OLQJXLVWLF

SUHFRQGLWLRQVUDWKHUWKDQIURPIRUPDOFRQVWUDLQWV%HRZXOIFRQWDLQVYHUVHVZLWK

GRXEOH DOOLWHUDWLRQ LQ WKH ¿UVW IRRW VXFK DV *Xè*HDWD OHȸRG YHUVH D RU

EHRUKWEHȸDFHQ JRGHV YHUVH $ LGHQWLFDO WR WKH VLQVRUJQD JHGUHDK IURP

The Wife’s LamentGLVFXVVHGDERYH7KHSRHPDOVRFRQWDLQVKHPLVWLFKVOLNHV\Q

VQ GXPVZHDOKYHUVHDLQZKLFKDOOWKUHHOH[LFDOHOHPHQWVDOOLWHUDWH%RWK

0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6

22

W\SHVSURYLGHIRUPDOJURXQGVIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRIDPELJXRXVFDVHVOLNHYHUVHD

IURP7KH5XLQ

&OHDUO\WKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQDZHDNFRQVWLWXHQWRIDZHDNFRQVWLWXHQWDQG

DZHDNFRQVWLWXHQWRIDVWURQJFRQVWLWXHQWLVVRVXEWOHWKDWLWFDOOVIRUTXHVWLRQV

FRQFHUQLQJ WKH SV\FKRORJLFDO UHDOLW\ RI WKH HQWLWLHV 6XFK GLVFUHWH UHODWLRQV DUH

QRWYHU\OLNHO\WRKDYHEHHQFRQVFLRXVO\FRQVLGHUHGE\$QJOR6D[RQSRHWVFI

5XVVRP<HWWKHXQFRPPRQSDWWHUQVVFDWWHUHGDPRQJWKHYHUVHVRI

%HRZXOIDUHQRWWKHHIIHFWRIVW\OLVWLFÀDPER\DQFHRILWVDXWKRU3DUDOOHOVHTXHQFHV

DUH DWWHVWHG LQ RWKHU SRHPV DV ZHOO7KH\ FDQ HLWKHU EH GLVFDUGHG DV LUUHOHYDQW

UHVLGXDOIRUPVDSSURSULDWHO\HPHQGHGRUDFFHSWHGDVPLQRUEXWOHJLWLPDWHW\SHV

)RUPDODSSDUDWXVEDVHGRQOLQJXLVWLFSULQFLSOHVFRQVWUDLQVLQWXLWLYHHYDOXDWLRQRI

SRHWLFDO GDWD DQG KHOSV WR UDWLRQDOL]H WKH OHVV FRQYHQWLRQDO SDWWHUQV E\ ¿QGLQJ

WKHP D SODFH ZLWKLQ D FRKHUHQW V\VWHP 'HVSLWH WKHLU KLJKO\ DEVWUDFW FKDUDFWHU

DOWHUQDWLYH PRGHOV RI PHWULFDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ JHQHUDWH D W\SRORJ\ EDVHG RQ

OLQJXLVWLFSULQFLSOHVLQVWHDGRIVHOIFRQWDLQHGPHWULFDOWD[RQRP\ZKLFKGLYRUFHV

SRHWU\IURPWKHODQJXDJHLWVSHDNV9LHZHGIURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHZKLFKZHDYHVWKH

ODQJXDJHDQGSRHWLFDOSUD[LV2OG(QJOLVKYHUVHVJDLQQHZDQGRIWHQXQH[SHFWHG

VLJQL¿FDQFH

675(6=&=(1,(

$UW\NXá RPDZLD QLHNWyUH SUREOHP\ PHWU\NL VWDURDQJLHOVNLHM LOXVWUXMąF MH Z\EUDQ\PL

IUDJPHQWDPL XWZRUyZ SRHW\FNLFK ] GDWRZDQHJR QD ZLHN ; .RGHNVX ] ([HWHU 7KH /LEUDU\ RI

'HDQDQG&KDSWHU([HWHU0V$XWRUNDVWDUDVLĊSRND]DüZMDNLVSRVyEU\WPLZHUV\¿NDFMD

NV]WDáWXMą]QDF]HQLHNOXF]RZ\FKIUDJPHQWyZXWZRUyZZVSyáJUDMąF]VHPDQW\NąLOHNV\NąWHNVWX

6]F]HJyOQ\QDFLVNSRáRĪRQRQDWHPLHMVFDZNWyU\FKUHODFMHPHWU\F]QHZFKRG]ąZEH]SRĞUHGQL

]ZLą]HN]HVNáDGQLąLVHPDQW\Ną=QDMRPRĞüIXQGDPHQWDOQ\FK]DVDGZHUV\¿NDFMLVWDURDQJLHOVNLHM

SR]ZDODQLHNLHG\UR]VWU]\JQąü]QDF]HQLHVSRUQ\FKIUDJPHQWyZQDGDMąFLQWHUSUHWDFMLZLDU\JRGQH

SRGVWDZ\2GZRáXMąFHVLĊGRNDWHJRULLMĊ]\NR]QDZF]\FKZVSyáF]HVQHWHRULHZHUV\¿NDFMLVąRERN

NODV\F]Q\FK VFKHPDWyZ ZDĪQ\P ĨUyGáHP SR]QDQLD ]DOHĪQRĞFL MDNLH LVWQLHMą SRPLĊG]\ PDWHULą

MĊ]\NDVWDURDQJLHOVNLHJRDWNDQNąSRHW\FNąDQJORVDVNLFKXWZRUyZ

6áRZDNOXF]RZHVWDURDQJLHOVNLV\VWHPZHUV\¿NDF\MQ\]QDF]HQLHSU]HMĞüSRHW\FNLFKUHJXá\

PHWU\F]QHVHPDQW\NDWHNVWX

5()(5(1&(6

ÈUQDVRQ.7KHULVHRIWKHTXDWUDLQLQ*HUPDQLFPXVLFDOLW\DQGZRUGEDVHGUK\WKPLQHGGLF

metres,Q'UHVKHUDQG)ULHGEHUJ±

%DQWRFN*$QKDJD$QYLO3UHVV3RHWU\/RQGRQ

%HVVLQJHU-%-U6-.DUOHGV(VVHQWLDO$UWLFOHVIRUWKH6WXG\RI2OG(QJOLVK3RHWU\

$UFKRQ+DPGHQ&7

%RVZRUWK-717ROOHU$Q$QJOR6D[RQ'LFWLRQDU\2832[IRUG

%UDGOH\6$-$QJOR6D[RQ3RHWU\'HQW/RQGRQ

021,.$23$/,ē6.$

23

&ODUN+DOO-5$&RQFLVH$QJOR6D[RQ'LFWLRQDU\^WKHGLWLRQ&83&DPEULGJH

&URVVOH\+ROODQG.7KH$QJOR6D[RQ:RUOG$Q$QWKRORJ\2832[IRUG

'UHVKHU%()ULHGEHUJ1Formal Approaches to Poetry. Recent Developments in Metrics

0RXWRQGH*UX\WHU%HUOLQ±1HZ<RUN

'UHVKHU%(/DKLUL$7KH*HUPDQLFIRRWPHWULFDOFRKHUHQFHLQ2OG(QJOLVK³/LQJXLVWLF

,QTXLU\´±

'XQQLQJ73$-%OLVVHGVThe Wanderer0HWKXHQ/RQGRQ

*RUGRQ5.$QJOR6D[RQ3RHWU\'HQW/RQGRQ

*UHLQ&K:0±6SUDFKVFKDW]GHUDQJHOVlFKVLFKVHQ'LFKWHU+HLGHOEHUJ

+D\HV%$JULGEDVHGWKHRU\RI(QJOLVKPHWUH³/LQJXLVWLF,QTXLU\´±

-DNREVRQ56HOHFWHG:ULWLQJV0RXWRQ7KH+DJXH

.DWDPED)$Q,QWURGXFWLRQWR3KRQRORJ\/RQJPDQ/RQGRQ

.HU1&DWDORJXHRI0DQXVFULSWV&RQWDLQLQJ$QJOR6D[RQ2[IRUG

.LSDUVN\37KHUK\WKPLFVWUXFWXUHRI(QJOLVKYHUVH³/LQJXLVWLF,QTXLU\´±

.OLQFN$7KH2OG(QJOLVK(OHJLHV$&ULWLFDO(GLWLRQDQGD*HQUH6WXG\0F*LOO±4XHHQ¶V

8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

.XU\áRZLF]-=ZLą]NLPHWU\NL]MĊ]\NLHPSRWRF]Q\P,Q.XU\áRZLF]-±

.XU\áRZLF]-Latin and Germanic metre³(QJOLVKDQG*HUPDQLF6WXGLHV´±

.XU\áRZLF]-(VTXLVVHV/LQJXLVWLTXHV2VVROLQHXP:URFáDZ

.XU\áRZLF]-'LHVSUDFKOLFKHQ*UXQGODJHQGHUDOWJHUPDQLVFKHQ0HWULN,QQVEUXFN

.XU\áRZLF]-0HWULNXQG6SUDFKJHVFKLFKWH3$1:DUVDZ

.XU\áRZLF] -  7KH OLQJXLVWLF IRXQGDWLRQV RI PHWUH Ä%LXOHW\Q 3ROVNLHJR 7RZDU]\VWZD

-Ċ]\NR]QDZF]HJR´ ±

/DVV52OG(QJOLVK$+LVWRULFDO/LQJXLVWLF&RPSDQLRQ&83&DPEULGJH

0F&XOO\&%--$QGHUVRQHGV(QJOLVK+LVWRULFDO0HWULFV&83&DPEULGJH

0XLU % -  7KH ([HWHU$QWKRORJ\ RI 2OG (QJOLVK 3RHWU\ The Exeter DVD 8QLYHUVLW\ RI

([HWHU3UHVV([HWHU

3RSH-&(LJKW2OG(QJOLVK3RHPV^UGHGLWLRQSUHSDUHGE\5')XON::1RUWRQ 

&RPSDQ\1HZ<RUN±/RQGRQ

5DIIHO%3RHPVIURPWKH2OG(QJOLVK^QGHGLWLRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI1HEUDVND3UHVV/LQFROQ

/RQGRQ

5XVVRP*2OG(QJOLVK0HWUHDQG/LQJXLVWLF7KHRU\&83&DPEULGJH

5XVVRP*$QHZNLQGRIPHWULFDOHYLGHQFHLQ2OG(QJOLVKSRHWU\,Q6$GDPVRQHWDO

³3DSHUVIURPWKH^WK,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RQIHUHQFHRQ(QJOLVK+LVWRULFDO/LQJXLVWLFV&XUUHQW,VVXHV

LQ/LQJXLVWLF7KHRU\´±

5XVVRP*%HRZXOIDQG2OG*HUPDQLF0HWUH&83&DPEULGJH

6LHYHUV($OWJHUPDQLVFKH0HWULN+DOOH

7UHKDUQH(0':X2OGDQG0LGGOH(QJOLVK3RHWU\%ODFNZHOO3XEOLVKLQJ2[IRUG

0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6