Se lec tive ag glu ti na tion of tour ma line grains by foraminifera in a deep-wa ter flysch en vi ron ment (Eocene Hi ero glyphic Beds, Silesian Nappe, Pol ish Outer Carpathians)
Anna WAŒKOWSKA1, *
1 AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy, Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy, Geo phys ics and En vi ron men tal Pro tec tion, Al. A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Po land
Waœkowska, A., 2014. Se lec tive ag glu ti na tion of tour ma line grains by foraminifera in a deep-wa ter flysch en vi ron ment (Eocene Hi ero glyphic Beds, Silesian Nappe, Pol ish Outer Carpathians). Geo log i cal Quar terly, 58 (2): 337–352, doi:
10.7306/gq.1154
De tri tal frag ments of automorphic tour ma line crys tals are com monly in cor po rated into the tests of sim ple ag glu ti nated foraminifera that lived in the deep-ma rine Carpathian turbidite ba sin in which the de po si tion of the Hi ero glyphic Beds (Eocene) took place. Such grains were ob served in the tests of 37 spe cies rep re sent ing 20 gen era. In spite of the fact that tour ma line oc curs in the Carpathian Flysch sed i ments as an ac ces sory min eral, still it was se lected by the foraminifera as the only heavy min eral to be in cor po rated into their tests. The pro por tion of tour ma line-bear ing spec i mens in an as sem blage usu ally amounts to a few per cent, but may reach 29% in ex treme cases. The par tic u lar pref er ence for tour ma line se lec tion and in cor po ra tion in the test walls is shown by the fol low ing gen era: Psammosiphonella, Reophax, Bathysiphon and Nothia.
Key words: heavy min er als, tour ma line, ag glu ti nated foraminifera, deep-ma rine flysch en vi ron ment, Outer Carpathians.
INTRODUCTION
Ag glu ti nated foraminifera are among the most wide spread meiofaunal or gan isms in ma rine bas ins. Most of them are con - sid ered as cos mo pol i tan or gan isms, well-adapted to en vi ron - ments rang ing from shelf to deep-ma rine, and tol er ant to high hy dro static pres sure, sa lin ity and tem per a ture (e.g.,
£uczkowska, 1993; Kaminski and Gradstein, 2005 and ref er - ences therein). The char ac ter is tic fea ture of these or gan isms is the mode of for ma tion of their tests, which con sists of allogenic grains bound to gether with or ganic or cal car e ous ce ment se - creted by the or gan ism (e.g., Murray, 1973; £uczkowska, 1993;
Bender and Hemleben, 1988; Hemleben and Kaminski, 1991;
Podobina and Tatyanin, 2000 and ref er ences therein). The grains that com prise such tests are de rived from the sed i ment cov er ing the ba sin floor sur face, or from a thin zone un der - neath. Quartz grains con sti tute the most com mon de tri tal com - po nent, but there are also tests com posed, partly or en tirely, of or ganic ma te rial, i.e. coccolihts, sponge spicules, tests of other foraminifera, di a toms, radio lar ians, or fine frag ments of bi valve tests (Smith and Kaesler, 1970; Tendal et al., 1982; Commeau et al., 1985; Cart wright et al., 1989; Gooday and Claugher, 1989; Gooday et al., 1995a, 2002, 2010; Allen et al., 1999;
Gooday and Smart, 2000; Thom sen and Ras mus sen, 2008 and ref er ences therein). Be sides quartz, the fol low ing in or ganic
de tri tal com po nents are ob served in the foraminifera test walls:
cal cite, ar agon ite, do lo mite, glauconite, feld spars, micas, pyroxene, hornblende, mag ne tite, py rite as well as other heavy min er als, e.g. to paz, il men ite, mag ne tite, rutile, zir con, min er als rep re sent ing the gar net group, ap a tite, amhibole, and phillipsite (e.g., Heron-Allen, 1915; Switzer and Boucot, 1955; Weston, 1984; Höfling, 1988; Gooday et al., 1995b; Bartholdy et al., 2005; Makled and Langer, 2009; Mancin et al., 2012 and ci ta - tions therine). Also shocked di a mond grains (Kaminski et al., 2008) and vol ca nic glass frag ments (Switzer and Boucot, 1955;
Hess et al., 2000) were spo rad i cally ob served among the ag glu - ti nated grains. Re cent re search shows that some of the ag glu ti - nated foraminifera as sem blages that lived in the Carpathian flysch ba sin ca. 35 mil lion years ago used tour ma line grains, in ad di tion to quartz, feld spar, and mus co vite, as a com mon de tri - tal com po nent of their tests (Waœkowska and £odziñski, 2011a, b). There fore, the aims of this pa per are to pres ent de tailed ob - ser va tions fo cused on tour ma line-ag glu ti nat ing foraminifera from the Outer Carpathian ba sin, and dis cuss their oc cur rences from a more gen eral per spec tive of deep-ma rine foraminiferal as sem blages of this re gion.
STUDY AREA AND LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
This study per tains to the Pol ish sec tor of the Outer Carpathians (Fig. 1). The depositional suc ces sions of the Outer Carpathians con sist mainly of deep-ma rine flysch se quences de pos ited in the west ern part of the Tethys Ocean, known as the Carpathian Ba sin (e.g., Ksi¹¿kiewicz, 1962, 1977; Œl¹czka and Kaminski, 1998, Golonka et al., 2006, 2008, 2013; Œl¹czka
* E-mail: waskowsk@agh.edu.pl
Received: March 1, 2014; accepted: March 10, 2014; first published online: March 11, 2014
338 Anna Waœkowska
Fig. 1. Lo ca tion of study area
A – tec tonic sketch-map of Pol ish Carpathians (map af ter ¯ytko et al., 1989, mod i fied); B–D – geo log i cal maps of the stud ied sec tions: B – Gródek area, lo ca tion of Lipie sec tion (map af ter Cieszkowski, 1992, mod i fied), C – Gorlice area, lo ca tion of the Sêkówska sec tion (map af ter Szymakowska, 1979, mod i fied), D – Krzes³awice area, lo ca tion of the Stradomka sec tion (map af ter Burtan, 1974, mod i fied), E – Jasnovice area, lo ca tion of the Olecka sec tion (map af ter Burtan, 1972, mod i fied)
et al., 2006; Golonka and Waœkowska-Oliwa, 2007 and ref er - ences therein). The Carpathian Ba sin ex isted and evolved from the Ju ras sic to the Mio cene times. El e vated ridges sep a rated it into sub-bas ins, and their con fig u ra tion and num bers var ied with time. One of these de pos i to ries was the Silesian Ba sin (e.g., Ksi¹¿kiewicz, 1972; Unrug, 1979; Cieszkowski 1992;
Golonka and Waœkowska-Oliwa, 2007; Golonka et al., 2013 and ref er ences therein; Fig. 1). The peak of the orogenic move - ments oc curred in the Mio cene and re sulted in fold ing, thrust ing and up lift of the basinal sed i men tary suc ces sions (Ksi¹¿kiewicz, 1962, 1977; Cieszkowski, 1992; Golonka and Waœkowska, 2007; Golonka et al., 2013). As a re sult, the Outer Carpathians con sist of a se quence of nappes thrust to wards the north, which con tain deep ma rine de pos its of the for mer Carpathian Bas ins (Fig. 1).
The Silesian Nappe, which hosts the lithostratigraphic unit of the Hi ero glyphic Beds (Eocene) in ves ti gated in this pro ject, oc cu pies the cen tral part of the Pol ish Flysch Carpathians, and
is bor dered by other nappes to the south (Fig. 1). The oc cur - rences of the Hi ero glyphic Beds and the Green Shales (Figs. 2 and 3) in the west ern part of the Silesian Nappe were sam pled at the fol low ing lo cal i ties (Fig. 1): the re gion of Istebna (Olecka sec tion), Szczyrzyc (Stradomka sec tion), Ro¿nów Lake (Lipe sec tion) and Gorlice (Sêkówka sec tion; Fig. 1).
The Hi ero glyphic Beds are a suc ces sion of thin-bed ded shaly-sandy turbidites. The pre dom i nant fa cies of grey or green ish-grey non-cal car e ous shales are in ter ca lated with thin- or me dium-bed ded fine-grained quartz arenites, mainly par al lel or rip ple cross-lam i nated and grey in col our. Nu mer ous bio- and mechanoglyphs ob served on soles of sand stone beds are char - ac ter is tic for this unit. Si mul ta neously, the ac com pa ny ing mudstones are com monly bioturbated. Var ie gated and green mudstones are lo cally pres ent as in ter ca la tions. A ho ri zon of green mudstones, marly in the up per most part of the suc ces - sion, oc curs as an in for mal sub di vi sion suc ceed ing the Hi ero - glyphic Beds. The lower bound ary of the Hi ero glyphic Beds is Fig. 2. Dis tri bu tion of tour ma line amount along lithological log of the Lipie sec tion
re gion ally diachronous and marked by the basal con tact with dif fer ent lithostratigraphic units. Namely, in the west ern and cen tral sec tors of the Pol ish Outer Carpathians (Olecka and Stradomka sec tions ana lysed in this study) the age of the Hi - ero glyphic Beds ranges from the Early to Late Eocene (Burtan et al., 1956; Burtan, 1974, 1978; Chodyñ and Waœkowska- Oliwa, 2006). How ever, in the west ern re gion (Lipie and Sêkówka sec tions) the Hi ero glyphic Beds ap pear later – in the
Mid dle Eocene – and are un der lain by the thick-bed ded Ciê¿kowice Sand stone For ma tion, which forms a wedge be - tween the Istebna Beds be low and the Hi ero glyphic Beds above (Szymakowska, 1979; Cieszkowski et al., 1991; Cieszkowski, 1992; Leszczyñski and Radomski, 1994). In the Silesian Nappe sec tion at Ro¿nów Lake (Lipie sec tion), the green mudstone unit lo cally re places the Hi ero glyphic Beds, and is mainly Late Eocene, rarely Mid dle–Late Eocene in age.
340 Anna Waœkowska
Fig. 3. Dis tri bu tion of foraminiferal sam ples with tour ma line along lithological logs of the Hi ero glyphic Beds in the Jasnovice, Krzes³awice and Gorlice ar eas
METHODS AND ANALYTICAL MATERIAL
The sam ples col lected for micropalaeontological anal y sis rep re sent mudstones of the Hi ero glyphic Beds and the over ly - ing Green Shales from the Silesian Nappe (Figs. 1–3). 67 sam - ples were ana lysed, out of which 35 con tained tour ma line-bear - ing foraminiferal tests.
For each sam ple, about 0.5 kg of the rock was pro cessed fol - low ing stan dard micropalaeontological pro ce dure. Af ter mac er a - tion in an aque ous so lu tion of Glau ber’s salt (NaSO4), the ma te - rial was washed on 0.068 mm mesh size sieve. Foraminiferal tests were hand-sep a rated from the res i due re tained on the sieve and tax o nom i cally ver i fied. Sub se quently, tour ma - line-bear ing tests were sep a rated for fur ther study. This in volved ob ser va tions un der low-mag ni fi ca tion bin oc u lar mi cro scope Nikon VL100POL and with a scan ning elec tron mi cro scope FEI QUANTA 200 FEG. Elec tron microprobe anal y ses (EMPA) of se lected spec i mens were con ducted with a CAMECA SX 100 Elec tron Microprobe in wave length-dispersive spec trom e try (WDS) mode at the Inter-In sti tute An a lyt i cal Com plex for Min er - als and Syn thetic Sub stances, War saw.
A com plete doc u men ta tion of this work, in clud ing the col lec - tion of forminiferal tests, is housed with the au thor at AGH, Kraków.
RESULTS
MINERAL COMPOSITION OF AGGLUTINATED FORAMINIFERAL TESTS
The foraminiferal as sem blages iden ti fied in the ana lysed sam ples are dom i nated by ag glu ti nated taxa. The tests of most spec i mens con sist of quartz grains only, which are usu ally an - gu lar to subangular in shape and vary ing in size (Figs. 4 and 5).
Some spec i mens, es pe cially with coarse-grained tests (Reohax, Bathysiphon), also con tain feld spar grains and biogenic par ti cles, i.e., sol i tary coccoliths, di a toms, si li ceous sponge spicules oc cur in the tests of Bathysiphon. Mus co vite flakes were found in tests from the Lower Eocene Hi ero glyphic Beds in the Janoska sec tion. Sol i tary tour ma line grains were ob served in some spec i mens, and authigenic py rite oc curs in the ana lysed tests as a diagenetic com po nent.
Tour ma line grains in cor po rated in the foraminiferal tests can be iden ti fied rel a tively eas ily un der a low-mag ni fi ca tion mi - cro scope. They are a con trast ing and ac ces sory com po nent of tests typ i cally com posed of quartz grains (Fig. 6). Quartz grains ap pear grey in col our with a greasy lus tre; their shape is usu ally ir reg u lar re flect ing the lack of cleav age, and show a viariable de gree of round ness. In con trast, tour ma line grains usu ally show glassy lus tre, are an gu lar to subangular, and have an elon gated reg u lar shape re flect ing the orig i nal idiomorphic crys - tal form. Frag mented tour ma line crys tals are split along the cleav age sur faces, thus re tain ing in the char ac ter is tic co lum nar shape of the par ent min eral, or are bro ken per pen dic u larly to the col umn axis. They have a dis tinct vit re ous lus tre, dis play char ac ter is tic col our usu ally mark edly darker than other de tri tal com po nents of the test and are of ten much coarser-grained than quartz – a fea ture that at tracts the ob server’s at ten tion in ad di tion to other char ac ter is tics.
FEATURES OF TOURMALINE GRAINS
Form of tour ma line grains. The tour ma line grains in cor - po rated in the foraminiferal tests rep re sent automorphic crys tal - line co lum nar forms (Figs. 4–6) that are usu ally abraded very lit -
tle. Most of ten they oc cur as crys tals bro ken per pen dic u larly to the long axis, but very fine crys tals re main in tact (Figs. 4–6).
There are also grains re sult ing from dis in te gra tion along the crys tal axis, fol low ing the in dis tinct cleav age sur faces (¯aba, 2003). Lon gi tu di nal striations, char ac ter is ti cally par al lel to the long axis, can be seen clearly on the sur face of many tour ma - line grains. Both outer crys tal faces and cleav age sur faces show fea tures re sult ing from cor ro sion (Figs. 4–6).
Chem i cal com po si tion of tour ma lines. Con sid er ing their op ti cal prop er ties, two types of tour ma line grains can be dis - cerned un der trans mit ted light mi cro scope. Type one is rep re - sented by grains light brown to yel low ish-brown, or yel low - ish-green in col our, mainly trans par ent and semi-trans par ent with pleochlorism. Grains that are opaque and black in col our rep re sent the sec ond type and oc cur less fre quently than grains of the first type.
Semi-quan ti ta tive anal y ses re veal at least two kinds of tour - ma line as sem blages in terms of chem i cal com po si tion, i.e. the con tent of the main el e ments (Al, Mg, Fe) and trace el e ments (Na, Ti, K). Mem bers rich in Mg–NaMg3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
(dravite; Fig. 7) and rich in Fe2+–NaFe2+3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
(schorl) were iden ti fied. Al- and Li-dom i nant mem bers Na(Al,Li)3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4 (elbaite) were not ob served (Waœkowska and £odziñski, 2011a, b). Quan ti ta tively, dravite grains of vary ing Fe/Mg pro por tions pre dom i nate sig nif i cantly over schorl, the oc cur rences of which are rare.
Size of tour ma lines grains. The long axes and widths of tour ma line grains in foraminiferal tests from the Lipie sec tion were mea sured un der the scan ning mi cro scope (Ta ble 1). In gen eral, the grain size ap pears vari able. More than half of the mea sured grains are 39–69 µm long, with the most com mon size range 50–59 µm (Fig. 8). This is in agree ment with av er age axis length, which amounts to 57.5 ´ 23.5 µm for the ana lysed sam ple. As to the width mea sure ments, grains 10–20 µm wide pre dom i nate; 2/3 of the mea sured tour ma line grains fall in the 10–30 µm range. The larg est of the ob served grains, 166.5 µm long and 111µm wide, was found in a spec i men of Reophax in a sam ple from the Sêkówka sec tion (Fig. 6). The size of the fin est grain amounts to 13 ´ 3 µm (Ta ble 1); how ever, it must be noted that grains of ex treme di men sions oc cur very rarely.
Long crys tals of var i ous lengths rep re sent tour ma line grains of co lum nar shape. Most com monly, the ra tio of length to width is in the range 4–5.5. How ever, the foraminifera tended to in cor - po rate in their test frag ments of tour ma line crys tals that geo - met ri cally rep re sent short or long col umn, with length-to-width ra tio for most of the ob served grains rang ing from 1.5 to 3.5 (Figs. 4–6, Ta ble 1).
Tour ma line grains are found in cor po rated into foraminiferal tests of var i ous sizes. How ever, most com monly they oc cur in coarse-grained tests in which the av er age size of quartz grains, which con sti tute the fun da men tal build ing ma te rial, ex ceeds 40 µm. Such coarse-grained tests ob served in the ana lysed sam ples be long to spe cies of Reophax, Psammosiphonella, Recurvoides and Karrerulina. The coars est tour ma line grains are in cor po rated into the tests of Reophax du plex Grzybowski, R. pilulifer Brady, Pseudonodosinella elongata (Grzybowski) and Psammosiphonella cylindrica (Glaessner). Finer, me dium silt, tour ma line grains oc cur in tests com posed of gen er ally fine and very fine de tri tus (me dium – very fine silt), e.g. in Paratro - cham minoides and Trochamminoides div. sp., Ammodiscus peruvianus Berry, Trochammina umiatensis Tappan, Haplo - phrag moides walteri (Grzybowski) and Reticulophragmium amplectens (Grzybowski).
Fre quency and num bers of tour ma line grains in foraminiferal tests. Tour ma line grains are usu ally sol i tary and iso lated com po nents that oc cur as one to four crys tals in a sin - gle ag glu ti nated foraminiferal test (Figs. 4 and 5). Most of the
342 Anna Waœkowska
Fig. 4. SEM im ages of foraminifera with tour ma line casts
A – Psammosiphonella cylindrica (Glaessner) (sam ple 76/10/09), B – Trochammina sp. (84/19/09), C – cham ber from Reophax sp.
(81/15/09), D – Psammosiphonella cylindrica (Glaessner) (81/15/09), E – Bathysiphon sp. (75/5/98), F – Reophax du plex Grzybowski (68/2/09), G – Pseudonodosinella elongata (Grzybowski) (82/16/09), H – Paratrochamminoides sp. (68/2/09); scale bar – 50 µm
Fig. 5. SEM im ages of foraminifera with tour ma line casts
A – Psammosiphonella cylindrica (Glaessner) (sam ple 89/15/09), B – Bathysiphon sp. (43/47/06), C – Paratrochamminodes sp.
(73/7/09), D – Popovia beckmanni (Kaminski et Geroch) (Stradomka 43/47/06), E – Trochammina sp. (81/15/09), F – cham bers from Reophax sp. (Lipie 81/15/09), G – cham ber from Reophax sp. (27/25/10), H – cham ber from Reophax sp. (84/18/09); scale bar – 50 µm
344 Anna Waœkowska
Fig. 6. Im ages of foraminifera with tour ma line casts
A – Psammosiphonella cylindrica (Glaessner) (sam ple 15/2/12), B – Psammosiphonella cylindrica (Glaessner) (80/13/09), C – Psammosiphonella sp. (79/12/09), D, F – Reophax du plex Grzybowski (81/15/09), E – Reophax pilulifer Brady (15/2/12), G – Pseudonodosinella elongata (Grzybowski) (82/16/09), H – cham ber from Reophax sp. (78/12/09), I – cham ber from Reophax sp. (71/5/09), J – Karrerulina sp. (124/3/09), K – Trochamminoides sp. (82/16/09), L, M, N – Recurvoides sp. (81/15/09), O – Cribrostomoides sp. (82/16/09);
scale bar – 50 µm
ana lysed tests con tain one tour ma line grain only, while three to four crys tals per test ap pear very rarely. Torumaline grains are dis trib uted ran domly; some times they oc cur close to each other, but in other in stances are widely sep a rated. Their po si - tion within the test wall does not show any re cur rent pat tern:
they oc cur along, across or obliquely rel a tive to the cham ber or test axis. How ever, the outer sur face of the crys tal is usu ally par al lel to the outer sur face of the test. In rare cases tour ma line col umns are not ori ented par al lel to, but pro trude above the curved test out line. These crys tals are usu ally found as com po - nents of the out er most layer of the test, how ever, they oc ca - sion ally oc cur in cor po rated within the in ner struc ture of thick-walled tests, e.g., in Psammosiphonella cylindrica (Glaessner).
The num bers of the foraminifera with tour ma line grains in - cor po rated in their tests vary from sam ple to sam ple. In di vid ual sam ples con tain from a few to sev eral dozen of foraminiferal tests con tain ing such grains, and the pro por tion of such foraminifera amounts to a max i mum 2% of all foraminifera in the as sem blage pres ent in the sam ple. On the other hand, there are sam ples con tain ing more tour ma line-bear ing tests or lack ing them com pletely.
The rich est in tour ma line-bear ing foraminifera is the Lipie sec tion where al most all sam ples con tain these grains (Fig. 2 and Ap pen dix 1*). The quan tity of such spec i mens is here ex - cep tional and hardly com pa ra ble with the foraminiferal as sem - blages doc u mented in other units of the Flysch Carpathians. In the dis cussed sam ples, the fre quency ranges from 1% to over 29% of all spec i mens in the sam ple, and the es ti mated num ber of the in cor po rated in di vid ual tour ma line grains ranges from 8 to 1242 (Ap pen dix 1). The av er age quan tity of tour ma line
Lenght (a) Widht (b) a/b
65.5 30.5 2.14
52 13 4
61 11 5.54
50 22.5 2.22
47.5 23.5 2.02
30.5 19.5 1.53
50 30.5 1.63
76 16.5 4.6
61 17.5 3.48
80 26.5 3.01
43.5 32.5 1.33
50 25 2
76 26 2.92
52.5 30 1.73
105.5 61 1.72
41 12 3.41
41 19 2.15
100 53.5 1.86
28.5 6.5 3.48
46.5 20 2.32
64.5 35 1.84
35 11 3.18
26.5 5 5.3
36 20 1.8
77 38.5 2
61 17.5 3.48
47.5 12 3.95
45 18.5 2.43
58.5 17.5 3.34
54.5 13 4.19
53 15.5 3.41
33.5 13.5 2.48
16.5 5.5 3
18.5 7.5 2.46
20 5 4
50 20 2.5
68.5 26.5 2.58
31.5 11.5 2.73
85.5 35.5 2.4
55.5 20 2.77
91.5 21 4.35
13 3 4.33
21.5 5 4.3
23.5 7 3.35
30.5 9 3.38
45 15 3
111 31 3.17
53 26 2.03
91 39 2.33
68.5 18.5 3.7
95.5 43.5 2.19
80 30 2.66
94.5 37 2.55
166.5 111 1.5
102.5 66 1.55
60 12 5
45 36 1.25
53 21 2.52
57 23 2.47
50 22 2.27
T a b l e 1 Sizes (in µm) of tour ma line clasts in foraminiferal tests
Fig. 7. Rep re sen ta tive com po si tions of tour ma line (dravite) in the tests of ag glu ti nated foraminifera
A – EDS, B – WDS anal y ses
* Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi: 10.7306/gq.1154
grains per sin gle test from Lipie var ies from 0.1 and 0.27 crys - tals, with a mean of 0.09 (Fig. 2), while in Sêkowka and Olecka sec tions the av er age value amounts to ca. 0.05.
The dis tri bu tion of the tour ma line-bear ing foraminifera is not sys tem atic in the ana lysed sec tions; how ever, there is a re la - tion ship be tween their pres ence (and quan tity) and the li thol ogy of the host ing sed i ment. In sec tions at Lipie, Stradomka and Sêkówka such tests are ei ther ab sent or al ter na tively at tain the
low est of the val ues ob served in the in ter vals of thin-bed ded sandy-shaly turbidite se quences. But in shaly suc ces sions, de - void of sand stone interbeds, tour ma line grains con sti tute a com mon con stit u ent of tests. Fur ther more, their pro por tion in - creases par al lel with the fin ing up wards trend of the host ing sed i men tary fa cies evolv ing into mudstone-claystone as so ci a - tions. On the other hand, tour ma line-bear ing foraminferal tests are a com mon oc cur rence in var ie gated shales.
Tax on omy of tour ma line-bear ing forms. In sam ples from Lipie, tour ma line grains are in cor po rated in the tests of 37 spe - cies that rep re sent 20 gen era (Ap pen dix 1). The tour ma - line-bear ing foraminifera usu ally be long to the as sem blages of high di ver sity and rich in num bers, which thrived in eco log i cally fa vour able con di tions.
The car ri ers of the high est pro por tion of tour ma line grains among all ana lysed sam ples are the spe cies of Psammo - siphonella, Reophax, Bathysiphon and Nothia. The tests of these forms con cen trate the high est num bers of tour ma line grains; a part of these in cor po rates sev eral crys tals within a sin - gle test. Foraminifera that com monly in clude tour ma line grains in their tests are: Recurvoides, Trochamminoides – mainly T.
subcoronatus (Grzybowski), T. grzybowskii Kaminski et Geroch, T. variolarius (Grzybowski), and Paratrochamminoides – mainly P. heteromorphus (Grzybowski), P. olszewskii (Grzybowski) and Trochammina (mainly Trochammina umiatensis Tappan; Ap pen dix 1). Tests of the re main ing taxa con tain such grains only oc ca sion ally.
The fre quency of oc cur rences of tour ma line-bear ing tests within in di vid ual tax o nomic groups is an in ter est ing in di ca tor (Ta ble 2). Psammosiphonella and Rhabdammina con tain tour - ma line grains in a dozen to ca. 85%, with the av er age quan tity of 40% tests per sam ple. All ana lysed tests from Sêkówka (sam ple no. 17/4/12) con tained tour ma line grains, but this can -
346 Anna Waœkowska
Fig. 8. Dis tri bu tion of sizes of in cor po rated into foraminiferal tests tour ma lines
Sam ple num ber Bathysiphon and Nothia
Paratrochamminoides and Trochamminoides
Psammosiphonella
and Rhabdammina Recurvoides Reophax
Lipe 88/22/09 – 11.53% – – –
Lipe 87/21/09 – 1.16% – 1.42% –
Lipe 86/20/09 20.00% 12.50% 77.58% 20.71% 80.00%
Lipe 85/19/09 2.70% 4.76% 19.04% 1.96% 11.11%
Lipe 84/18/09 45.71% 9.70% 84.87% 2.71% 7.93%
Lipe 83/17/09 4.14% 2.79% 15.78% 3.53% –
Lipe 81/15/09 7.75% 6.48% 19.02% 9.49% 59.57%
Lipe 80/14/09 1.37% 0.86% 42.46% – 20.83%
Lipe 79/13/09 18.67% 14.47% 34.15% 0.77% 45.17%
Lipe 78//12/09 0.16% 0.54% 34.96% – 15.31%
Lipe 76/10/09 1.07% – 14.63% 2.22% 0.74%
Lipe 75/9/09 – 1.56% 15.28% 11.61% 22.59%
Sêkówka 27/7/12 – 13.86% 79.54% – 48.83%
Sêkówka 17/4/12 – – 100.00% 1.27% 20%
Sêkówka 16/3/13 – – 22.22% 1.85% 4.54%
Sêkówka 15/2/12 4.67% 8.43% 23.33% 6.66% 55.75%
Sêkówka 14/1/12 3.70% 11.11% – – 44.44%
Olecka 108/25/09 2.53% 2.61% 1.58% – 2.56%
Olecka 110/27/09 4.10% – – – –
Stradomka 43/47/06 1.93% 23.52% 0.97% 0.62% 70%
Stradomka 96/66/09 6.25% 19.23% 9.23% – 13.84%
Stradomka 101/71/09 9.67% 1.93% 2.56% 2.70% 1.51%
T a b l e 2 Per cent age of foraminiferal spec i mens with tour ma lines within se lected tax o nomic groups
not be con sid ered rep re sen ta tive, be cause the to tal num ber rep re sent ing the ana lysed tax o nomic group in this sam ple amounted to just a few foraminiferal tests. From just a few to 80% of Reophax tests con tained tour ma line par ti cles; on av er - age, one spec i men out of three was tour ma line bear ing. Con - sid er ably lower in di ca tors char ac ter ise the tests of Bathysiphon and Nothia – only a few per cent of which con tain tour ma line grains, how ever, in ex cep tional cases the pro por tion of the tour - ma line-bear ing tests may reach even a half of the spec i mens (Ta ble 2). Paratrochamminoides or Trochamminoides are rel a - tively com mon in the ana lysed as sem blages, but their tests con tain tour ma line par ti cles rarely, from a few to a dozen % per the as sem blage. A sim i lar sit u a tion was ob served in the Recurvoides tests, which, be ing com mon and nu mer ous com - po nents of each as sem blage, sel dom con tain tour ma line grains, i.e. in only a few per cent of the spec i mens (Ta ble 2).
DISCUSSION
The Hi ero glyphic Beds and the as so ci ated Green Shales orig - i nated in a deep-ma rine ba sin. They are mainly in ter preted as turbidites sourced from shal lower parts of the ba sin, how ever, a con sid er able in flu ence of hemipelagic-type sed i men ta tion is likely with re gards to the thick mudstone-claystone in ter vals and pack - ages of Green Shales. Ex cept for the up per most part of their suc - ces sion, the Hi ero glyphic Beds and the Green Shales were de - pos ited be low the CCD, which is a lim it ing fac tor for the pres er va - tion and de po si tion of the car bon ate com po nents. There fore, pelitic fa cies of the ana lysed strata con sist of allogeneous de tri tus with quartz pre dom i nant and as so ci ated with mi nor pro por tions of feld spar, mus co vite and heavy min er als.
As so ci a tions of heavy min er als are vari able in the Outer Carpatian flysch suc ces sions and rep re sented by zir con, granet, tour ma line, rutile, kyan ite and saturolite that oc cur in sim i lar pro por tions of a dozen per cent each. An da lu site, epidote, ap a tite, chro mite, spinel, sillimanite, brookite and monazite oc cur in mi nor pro por tions (e.g., Tokarski, 1947;
Krysowska-Iwaszkiewicz and Unrug, 1967; Winkler and Œl¹czka, 1992; Grzebyk and Leszczyñski, 2006; Salata, 2013 and ref er ences therein). To tal amounts of heavy min er als re - corded in the Carpathian Flysch strata rarely ex ceed 1% by vol - ume (Zerndt, 1924; Jaskólski, 1931), usu ally rang ing be tween 0.4 and 0.001%.
De tri tal tour ma line oc curs in the sed i men tary suc ces sions of the Outer Carpathians as an ac ces sory min eral. In gen eral, tour ma line orig i nates as a prod uct of mag matic and meta mor - phic pro cesses and less of ten un der diagenetic con di tions. It is a com po nent of gran ites in fil trated by bo ron-rich flu ids, gra nitic pegmatites and some meta mor phic rocks, e.g. schist and mar - ble (e.g., Henry and Guidotti, 1985; Henry and Dutrow, 1996;
¯aba, 2003; Dutrow and Henry, 2011; Hinsberg et al., 2011a, b and ref er ences therein). Tour ma line is hard (7–7.5 on the Mohs scale) but brit tle, and with poor cleav age. It oc curs as elon gated prisms with faces of ten cov ered with striations par al lel to the di - rec tion of elon ga tion. Di ag nos tic for tour ma line crys tals is rounded tri an gu lar cross-sec tional shape. Ex cept for schorl, it counts among rare and very rare min er als (¯aba, 2003). Tour - ma line grains ob served in the Outer Carpatians sed i men tary sucessions are de rived from crys tal line pri mary source rocks of the Bo he mian Mas sif, or other up lifted zones of sim i lar com po - si tion (Salata, 2013). Next to rel a tively com mon schorl, dravite grains are fre quent (Salata, 2013).
The tex ture of the tour ma line grains in cor po rated in the foraminiferal tests is an other point for dis cus sion.
Coarse-grained and rounded turmaline grains oc cur in sand -
stone beds and sand stones as so ci ated with con glom er ates of the Carpathian Flysch suc ces sions (Salata, 2013). On the other hand, the ana lysed tests con tained in mudstone beds in cor po - rate only fine tour ma line grains – al most ex clu sively of me dium and coarse silt grade. They are of ten bro ken per pen dic u larly to the long axis, some are cor roded, but not rounded/abraded be - cause their orig i nal crys tal sur faces and edges are pre served.
Rounded coarse tour ma line grains in sand stone beds must be ei ther (1) de rived from pri mary source rocks (e.g., ig ne ous) and abraded dur ing trans port on land and/or in coastal ma rine en vi - ron ment, or (2) re cy cled, i.e. de rived from ero sion of pre-ex ist - ing sand stones. On the other hand, there is lit tle rea son to con - sider that an gu lar silt-size tour ma line grains in cor po rated in the foraminiferal tests em bed ded in mudstone lay ers that form the up per in ter vals of nor mally graded turbidite rhythms (Bouma se quences), were de rived from a source dif fer ent than the prov - e nance of the de tri tus that oc curs in the un der ly ing sand stone in ter vals. In ad di tion, green mudstones, which are prob a bly mostly hemipelagic de pos its, also con tain tests with an gu lar silt-size tour ma line grains. The con trast be tween well-rounded coarse tour ma line grains and their an gu lar silt-sized coun ter - parts prob a bly re flects the re sults of ex per i men tal work by Kuenen (1960). He has shown that phys i cal abra sion dur ing flu - vial trans port of sand-sized grains op er ates as a pro cess mod i - fy ing the grain shape (“...fluviatile ac tion is in sig nif i cant in the abra sion of sand grains af ter the first round ing of sharp edges...”). Even ae olian abra sion, which is many or ders of mag - ni tude more ef fi cient than flu vial “stops at 50 µ”. Fur ther more, chem i cal cor ro sion durig trans port is an im por tant fac tor that in - flu ences grain shape and size mod i fi ca tions. There fore, phys i - cal abra sion of silt-size grains, and such is the pre vail ing pro - por tion of the tour ma line grains ob served in this study, may be dis counted. In ad di tion, it must be noted that the rounded tri an - gu lar shape of crys tals seen in cross-sec tion is di ag nos tic for tour ma line and should not be con fused with phys i cal abra sion dur ing trans port, es pe cially in case of silt-size crys tals. All these ar gu ments im ply that both classes of tour ma line grains in the Carpathian Flysh strata, coarse sand-sized as well as silt, may be de rived from the same source area. There fore, well-pre - served, and only silt-grade, bro ken across, crys tals ob served here could be de rived from ei ther the pri mary source, or re cy - cled.
Quartz grains con sti tute the most com mon de tri tal com po - nent of the Carpathian Flysch suc ces sions and other bas ins dom i nated by turbidite sed i men ta tion. Ad di tion ally, quartz dis - plays good physico-chem i cal pa ram e ters; for both these rea - sons the ag glu ti nated foraminifera uti lize quartz grains for ac - cre tion of their tests. This re sults in foramniferal asociations with monomineral, or quasi-monomineral tests where quartz is the only, or pre dom i nant de tri tal com po nent. In the deep-ma rine en vi ron ment tour ma line ap pears to be a rel a tively com mon build ing ma te rial, how ever, it is an ac ces sory de tri tal com po - nent con sti tut ing only a dozen per cent of all heavy min er als (Salata, 2013). Grains of other heavy min er als are not uti lized as an ag glu ti nated con stit u ent, how ever, they are equally ac - ces si ble be cause their pro por tion in the sed i ment is sim i lar, and some times even higher. The pub lished data in di cate that zir con pre dom i nates among heavy min er als found in the Hi ero glyphic Beds of the Silesian Nappe (Jaskólski, 1931), and it ex ceeds the pro por tion of tour ma line by ca. 10% (Krysowska- Iwaszkiewicz and Unrug, 1967). In ter est ingly, in the ma te rial ana lysed in the course of this study only one foraminiferal test con tained a sin gle zir con grain. There fore, the foraminifera show a clear af fin ity to spe cific min eral phases, and in the deep-ma rine en vi ron ment of the Flysch Carpathians tour ma line ap pears to be their pre ferred choice.
Other au thors ob served that some spe cies of ag glu ti nated foraminifera ex hibit clear af fin i ties to wards spe cific min eral phases, in volv ing a cu ri ous abil ity to dis tin guish be tween in di - vid ual min er als (e.g., Heron-Allen and Earland, 1912;
Heron-Allen, 1915; Murray, 1971; Jorgensen, 1977; Allen et al., 1999; Laca et al., 2002; Kaminski et al., 2008). In case of the ma te rial ana lysed in the course of this study, tour ma line grains are con cen trated by se lected tax o nomic groups, namely Bathysiphon, Nothia, Psammosiphonella, Reophax, Recurvo - ides, Trochamminoides and Paratrochamminoides (Ap pen - dix 1). These foraminifera are con sid ered as cos mo pol i tan, oc - cur in high mumbers and to gether con sti tute a pre dom i nant group. To a large degreee they are counted among prim i tive foraminifera (sensu Hofker, 1972), which con struct mor pho log i - cally sim ple tests rang ing from tu bu lar with a sin gle cham ber, to uniserial com posed of sev eral cham bers ar ranged in a sin gle row, to coiled made up of sev eral to a dozen cham bers. How - ever, the dis tri bu tion of tour ma line grains is inhomogeneous within in di vid ual tax o nomic groups (Ta ble 2). Psammosipho - nella and Reophax show es pe cially high pref er ence to tour ma - line ce men ta tion, as the high est pro por tion of spec i mens of these groups con tains tour ma line grains. On the other hand, Recurvoides, Trochamminoides and Paratrochamminoides, which oc cur in sim i lar num bers in the as sem blage, se lect tour - ma line grains much less of ten in spite of the fact that, be ing ac - tively mo bile on the sur face and within sed i ment, they have eas ier ac cess to this test-build ing de tri tal com po nent. Also, rel - a tively low pro por tion of Bathysiphon in cor po rate tour ma line grains, but they ag glu ti nate in or ganic par ti cles and var i ous non-quartz min eral com po nents rel a tively of ten (Dick, 1928;
Bruce et al., 1981; Gooday nad Claugher, 1989; Gooday et al., 1995b, 2002; Cole and Val en tine, 2006).
The size of the grains seg re gated by spe cific spe cies is also pref er en tial (e.g., Heron-Allen, 1915; Smith and Kasler, 1970;
Gooday nad Claugher, 1989; Allen et al., 1999; Bartholdy et al., 2005). Tour ma line grains typ i cal for flysch sed i ments rep re sent a rel a tively large build ing com po nent of the ana lysed tests (Figs. 4–6 and 8), which is why their high est pro por tion oc curs in the coarse-grained tests of i.e. Reophax or Psammo - siphonella (Ta ble 2 and Ap pen dix 1). Coarse-grained tests of other ag glu ti nated foraminifera also be long to the ob served as - so ci a tions; among them are nu mer ous Recurvoides, com mon Cribrostomoides, Placentammina or ir reg u larly ap pear ing Karrerulina. These taxa also accrete tour ma line into their tests, but much less of ten than Reophax or Psammosiphonella. Ex - cept for the groups Trochamminoides and Paratrochamminoides, the foraminifera ag glu ti nat ing fine-grained tour ma line in their tests oc cur less of ten. How ever, tour ma line crys tals were ob served in very fine-grained tests of other taxa, e.g. Ammodiscus cretaceus (Reuss), A. peruvianus Berry, Reticulophragmium amplectens (Grzybowski), Haplophragmoides walteri (Grzybowski) (Ta ble 2 and Ap pen - dix 1). On the other hand, in many com monly oc cur ring forms, e.g. Glomospira charoides (Jones et Parker), G. gordialis (Jones et Parker), Haplophragmoides nauticus Kender et al. or Spiroplectammina spectabilis (Grzybowski), tour ma line crys - tals were not ob served as yet. It is pos si ble that the avail abil ity of tour ma line grains of the ap pro pri ate size in the host sed i ment may be a lim it ing fac tor in such cases.
The most com monly ag glu ti nated are short-co lum nar crys - tals or per pen dic u larly bro ken frag ments of long crys tals, which re sults in “build ing blocks” equiv a lent to the geo met ric pa ram e - ters of short-col umn. Long col umns are rare and found only in fine-grained tests. There fore, we ob serve a clear pref er ence for spe cific grain shape, not only size. It may be sig nif i cant that the gen eral out lines of short col umns of tour ma line are sim i lar to
the ag glu ti nated quartz grains, how ever, the lat ter are rather ir - reg u lar in shape. In ter est ingly, the size and shape of zir con and ap a tite grains are sim i lar, and zir con is as com mon in the Carpathian Flysch as tour ma line (Salata and Uchman, 2013), but only the lat ter min eral is accreted in the foraminiferal tests.
Con sid er ing the trophic strat egy of foraminifera ana lysed from the per spec tive of morphogroups (af ter Jones and Charnock, 1985 and later mod i fi ca tions), it ap pears that the num bers of epifaunal and infaunal forms that ag glu ti nate tour - ma line are com pa ra ble. Pre dom i nant among tour ma line-bear - ing foraminifera are two morphotypes clas si fied as erect epifauna and ta pered elon gated infauna. The tu bu lar foramini - fera, liv ing in ver ti cal po si tion and feed ing on nu tri ents cap tured from sus pen sion, rep re sent erect epifauna (e.g., Psammo - siphonella, Rhabdammina). The elon gated ta pered forms ac - tively move and mi grate deep within the sed i ment as ac tive feed ers (e.g., Reophax, Pseudonodosinella). It seems that infauna, which in cludes mo bile foraminifera ac tively pen e trat ing the bot tom sed i ment, had a better op por tu nity to ac cess tour - ma line grains as the test-build ing com po nent (Waœkowska and
£odziñski, 2011a, b). On the other hand, the dis tri bu tion of the foraminiferal morphogroups in di cates that epifauna had a sim i - lar ac cess to tour ma line grains at the sed i ment sur face. Sur - pris ingly large num bers of sed en tary erect foraminifera in cor po - rated the high est quan tity of tour ma line grains, which must have been ac ces si ble within reach of their pseudopodia.
The ana lysed ma te rial points to an in ter est ing re la tion be - tween the type of the host ing sed i ment, which re sults from a spe cific depositional re gime, the num bers of the tour ma - line-bear ing foraminifera, and the in cor po rated tour ma line grains. A low pro por tion, or ab sence, of tour ma line accreting tests was ob served in mudstone-sand stone fa cies and in turbidite flysch com plexes. This re fers to the Hi ero glyphic Beds in the Lipie sec tion, the lower part of the Sêkówka sec tion and var i ous strati graphic po si tions in the Stradomka pro file (Figs. 2 and 3). How ever, the num ber of tour ma line-bear ing tests is sig - nif i cantly higher in sam ples of mudstone-claystone com plexes, in green mudstones at Lipie and in the up per part of the Sêkówka and Stradomka sec tions where hemipelagic de po si - tion typ i fied by rel a tively low sed i men ta tion rate con trib uted to the ac cu mu la tion pro cess. Sim i larly, the tour ma line-bear ing tests oc cur in the foraminiferal as sem blages found in the var ie - gated mudstones de vel oped as green clayey mudstones interlaminated with cherry-red claystones. Also, the tax o nomic va ri ety of the ana lysed as sem blages con sid er ably in creases in var ie gated shales, which re flects con di tions eco log i cally fa vour - able for de vel op ment of the ben thic fauna.
Sam ples of clayey mudstones de pos ited in the deep-ma - rine en vi ron ment strongly in flu enced by hemipelagic sed i men - ta tion con tain the high est num bers of ag glu ti nated tour ma line grains be cause the foraminiferal tests em bed ded in such sed i - ments con cen trated them. De tri tal tour ma line is an ac ces sory com po nent of the Carpathian sed i men tary rocks in which its fre - quency amounts to ca. 0.15%. These mudstones con tain a low pro por tion of fine psam mit ic and coarse psefitic frac tions (0.08–0.03 mm) there fore the forms pre dis posed to ac cre tion of coarse-grained tests show high ac tiv ity in search of build ing ma te rial. The nec es sary de tri tal ma te rial was sup plied not only by sed i ment grav ity flows but also be cause of the ac tiv ity of infauna. The Hi ero glyphic Beds and green shales are in tensely bioturbated. There fore, mo bil ity of other or gan isms within the sed i ment may have re sulted in mix ing and over turn ing of the de tri tal ma te rial. The pres ence of heavy min er als in the foraminiferal tests is un re lated to their con cen tra tion in the sur - round ing sed i ment, which was also no ticed in the Re cent en vi - ron ments (Makled and Langer, 2009).
348 Anna Waœkowska
The anal y ses pre sented here are fo cused on the foraminifera from the Eocene strata of the Silesian Nappe.
How ever, nu mer ous spec i mens of tour ma line-ag glu ti nat ing foraminifera are also noted in the Eocene-age Hi ero glyphic Beds of the Skole Nappe, as well as in the £abowa Shale For - ma tion, Beloveza For ma tion and Zembrzyce Mem ber of the Maków (Magura) For ma tion in the Magura Nappe (Waœkowska and £odziñski, 2011a, b). Most of these lithostratigraphic units orig i nated in the depositional re gime sim i lar to that pre vail ing in the neigh bour ing Silesian Ba sin.
CONCLUSIONS
Next to quartz, tour ma line is the de tri tal com po nent com - monly in cor po rated in tests of the Eocene age deep-ma rine foraminifera of the Carpathian Ba sin. These tour ma line grains are usu ally frag ments of automorphic long co lum nar crys tals that bear traces of abra sion that prob a bly oc curred dur ing flu - vial trans port in the source area, as well as chem i cal cor ro sion.
They con sti tute allochthonous de tri tus trans ported from shal - lower parts of the ba sin by tur bid ity cur rents. On av er age, tour - ma line grains are 39–69 µm long and 10–30 µm wide, which re - sults in short co lum nar “build ing blocks”. A rel a tively rare va ri ety of tour ma line – dravite – pre dom i nates, whereas shorl is rare.
The ob served foraminifera in cor po rated be tween one and sev - eral tour ma line grains per test. The num ber of tour ma line-bear - ing tests usu ally amounts to a max i mum of sev eral per cent per as sem blage, but in ex treme case reaches 29%.
The dis tinct pref er ence of the foraminifera for se lect ing tour - ma line for their tests re mains in rad i cal con trast with the mar - ginal con tri bu tion of this ac ces sory min eral to the host rock com po si tion. The or gan isms do not uti lise grains of other heavy min er als even if their size and shape are com pa ra ble with tour - ma line grains.
Tour ma line grains were ob served in the tests of 37 spe cies of the foraminifera that be long to 20 gen era. These min eral grains oc cur most com monly in sim ple forms characterized by
rather un com pli cated struc ture and rep re sented by the cos mo - pol i tan or gan isms ag glu ti nat ing coarse-grained tests. The size of tour ma line clasts cor re sponds to the av er age di am e ter of test-build ing grains, and they oc cur in the fine-grained tests least fre quently. Psammosiphonella and Reophax show the high est af fin ity to in cor po rate tour ma line, while Bathysiphon and Nothia are less se lec tive in this re spect. It is in ter est ing that Psammosiphonella, the erect epifaunal form, dis plays pref er - ence to in clude tour ma line grains in its test, how ever, its mo bil - ity is very lim ited which should be crit i cally lim it ing its abil ity in ac cess ing tour ma line grains scat tered within the sur round ing sed i ment.
The high est quan tity of tour ma line-bear ing forms oc curs in the as sem blages of ben thic foraminifera, which show di ver si - fied tax o nomic com po si tion and com plex trophic struc ture, and lived in fa vour able eological con di tions. The tour ma line-bear ing forms are con cen trated in highly bioturbated mudstone-claystone com plexes of green and var ie gated mustones within the Hi ero glyphic Beds. Tour ma line grains bur - ied in the sed i ment could have been shifted due to the ac tiv ity of bioturbating or gan isms, which might have in creased the chance of them be ing found by the tour ma line ag glu ti nat ing foraminifera.
Ac knowl edge ments. The au thor is grate ful to M. £odziñski (AGH), M. Wendorff (AGH) for help ful dis cus sions of sev eral prob lems re lated to this re search. T. Wójcik helped with lab o ra - tory work. R. Stadnik (AGH), M. Czuj-Górniak (AGH), E. Waœkowska, K. Oliwa (SP 34) and P. Warmuz of fered their sup port in field work. D. Peryt (PAN), M. Cieszkowski (UJ) and M.A. Kaminski (KFUPM) kindly re viewed the manu script. SEM and EDS anal y ses were done and pic tures taken at the Scan - ning Mi cros copy Lab o ra tory WGGiOŒ AGH in Kraków.
Microprobe an a lyt i cal work was con ducted at Inter-In sti tute An - a lyt i cal Com plex for Min er als and Syn thetic Sub stances of the War saw Uni ver sity. This re search was fi nan cially sup ported by AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy in Krakow grant no.
11.11.140.173.
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