Selected Cultural and Historical Aspects of Development of the Samurai Ethos with a few Remarks about the Typology of Martial Arts

Krzysztof Jankowiak

Selected Cultural and Historical

Aspects of Development of the

Samurai Ethos with a few Remarks

about the Typology of Martial Arts

Security Dimensions and Socio-Legal Studies nr 9, 74-99

Krzysztof Jankowiak

Selected Cultural and Historical Aspects ofDevelopment

of the Samurai Ethos with a few Remarks about the Typology of

Martial Arts

Abstract:

Japan belongs to those countries that arouse more attention in other

parts of the world. Despite the fascination that inspires rich culture of

Japan and being its essential part, the possessions in the field of martial arts

Budo, this country has not yet been thoroughly understood by the people

of the West. Japanese “martial arts” laymen associated with monolithic,

but it does not constitute solid system. All their values are based on

m an’s relation to nature. High impact on them also have ancient concepts

developed in the circles of ancient cultures o f Asia (Far East) in different

periods o f its history. The very concept of “martial arts” until recently, it

was not precisely defined.

Key words: martial arts, culture, Budo, Asia, Japan, Far East, combat

systems

Japan belongs to those countries that arouse more attention in other

parts of the world. Despite the fascination that inspires rich culture of

Japan and being its essential part, the possessions in the field of martial arts

Budo, this country has not yet been thoroughly understood by the people

of the West. Japanese “martial arts” laymen associated with monolithic,

but it does not constitute solid system. All their values are based on

m an’s relation to nature. High impact on them also have ancient concepts

developed in the circles of ancient cultures o f Asia (Far East) in different

periods of its history. The very concept of “martial arts” until recently,

it was not precisely defined. Currently, one of the definitions is given by

Wojciech J.Cynarski: “Martial Arts is a way o f self-discovery, close to the

74

mystical experience of reality. Favored by: struggle and utmost experience,

meditation and overcoming weakness of the flesh nature, and finally, the

positive im pactofthe m asterofthis »spiritualjourney«. A m ore extensive

definition o f Martial Arts is given by Juliusz Piwowarski. He says that the

Martial Arts (Far Eastern Martial Arts) is the sphere of culture associated

with combat systems described by a detailed codification, resulting mostly

from the Far East inspiration, which deals with techniques, methods,

traditions and customs, based on philosophical and religious grounds, yet

utilitarian. It is used as effectively maintaining and enhancing a high level

of protection of individuals as well as teams of human, through exercises

and multi-faceted development o f the following elements:

1) the possibility of activity and prevention o f threats from people

and other adverse circumstances of a military, civil, forces o f nature

or the confrontation of sports,

2) the possibility of maintaining, saving and improving the qual­

ity of life, including health safety and moral and aesthetic values

transcend and mutually reinforcing in sizes: individual and social,

3) possibilities support during the course of a lifetime to engage the

mind and body a perfect method o f self-improvement,

4) level of combat skills determining also to take of internal strug­

gle against adversity, such as negative intentions and emotions1.

Japanese martial arts, today known as Budo1

2, are a reflection of the

way followed by a student of Martial Arts. Budo is derived from bujutsu

that was shaped in the hustle and bustle of the battlefield. Japan, with its

long isolation from the world, could keep the tradition of martial arts. It

is an in-depth study which combines tradition, philosophy and training.

In one of the conversations, Soke Toshimichi Takeuchi said that the basis

of teaching every student of the martial arts has to be a balance between

“technique, theory and philosophy” 3. Masters o f Martial Arts believe that if

1

J. Piwowarski, W. Czajkowski, Administrowanie jakością życia człowieka poprzez

system Modern Bushido, „IDO - Ruch dla kultury”, Rzeszów 2010, p. 19.

2

M. Ueshiba, Budo Nauki twórcy aikido, transl. M. Matusiak, Bydgoszcz 2005, p. 27.

3'

A part o f my talk with Soke Takeuchi - 04.12.2004, Namysłów.

one of these elements is omitted, then the student will not want to progress

in self-improvement. Master Taika Seiyu Oyata says: “The true bushi has

a good education, to respect the principles of discipline, characterized

by integrity, is modest and helpful, he can cultivate the land and build

houses, and most of all - his gentleness raises general confidence. Here is

the complete face o f a brave warrior”4.

It is commonly believed that there are no differences in the training

of students and the effects of martial arts training, player in the fight

sports, and an officer and a soldier in combat systems. Presented above

martial arts division, however, is necessary because the differences can be

seen even at the stage of the training o f human practices the martial arts,

fight sports and combat systems. If we are talking about martial arts it is

worth remembering the difference between the term Budo and Bujutsu.

Both terms have much in common, but derive from other historical

periods of Japan. The term “martial arts”, there are three basic categories

corresponding to the relations: - Sensei - deshi (student - student of martial

arts), coach - athlete (fight sports) and the expert, the specialist (instructor)

- the uniformed services (combat systems):

I. Martial Arts - not for killing, but for protection of life,

like says Master Taika Seiyu Oyata5. In the martial arts there is no

enemy, in many cases the enemy is us, martial arts student takes up the

fight with himself. He has before him the way that shows his master

- Sensei, where the student overcome his own weaknesses. Follows

it to achieve perfection, and thus strengthens its own personality.

Through theoretical and practical training as well as during exercise

student, under the guidance of master, receives the opportunity to learn

techniques, theory and philosophy. Traditional martial arts for the

4 T. S.Oyata, Ryu-Te No Michi, Klasyczna sztuka walki z Okinawy, transl. W. Nowakowski, Warszawa 2001, p. 64.

5 T. S. Oyata, Ryu-Te No Michi, Klasyczna sztuka walki z Okinawy, transl. W. Nowakow­ ski, Warszawa 2001, p. 85.

student of the martial arts can be ajoum ey of a lifetime. Firstly lifelong

follows the path of tradition. At that time, changing the perception of

the world and the environment. Throughout the training, regardless of

age develops a fighting spirit. It is valuable, especially when you live

to a ripe old age and still train. Sensei Hayashi Teruo says “education

of fighting spirit, let us fight against all adversities in life”6. In his

statements emphasizes that the great role in life play willpower, moral,

physical and chosen path that leads to perfection.

In the martial arts there is a master (Sensei), who is responsible

for the way o f teaching and passing on knowledge to his disciples.

He is responsible for their behavior, not only on the mat but also

outside it. We are talking about morality, discipline, behavior, lack of

aggression, helping the community, caring for the family, etc. In the

martial arts master only shows the way for student, not sets it. Thus

it should be authentic, truthful, trustworthy, fair, direct and contact.

Wojciech J. Cynarski believes that the knowledge of martial arts master

flow straight from his heart to the heart of disciple, therefore, has

a much greater impact on adept than coach on players7. He has a moral

obligation to teach disciple the principles o f coexistence, improve his

own personality and responsibility. He teaches both fighting techniques

and rules of conduct and understanding of the theory and foundations

of philosophy.

To sum up, martial arts run by master - Sensei are the way for

a lifetimethat allows you to build physical and mental health and to

maintain the efficiency and independence of the rest of our days. In the

martial arts are important aspects o f health, exercise should strengthen

vitality and to increase the degree of emotional threshold. Martial

Arts run disciple with tradition to improve body and mind. One such

example is the Soke Toshimichi Takeuchi, who in the last hour of his

6 J. M. Fraguas, Legendarni Mistrzowie Karate, Warszawa 2008, p. 49. 7 W. J. Cynarski, Sztuki budo w kulturze Zachodu, Rzeszów 2000, p. 49.

life taught techniques of kodachi (short sword) one o f his uchi deshi

(student ofhouse).

2. Martial Arts - we have here always the enemy and we’re

fighting to achieve a spectacular victory that would bring other honors.

Sports training develops sparring, prepares the player to a perform

certain tasks indicated by the coach, which aim to triumph. Sport

develops only those skills that are needed in the event. Long-term

training will inevitably lead to the emergence very similar techniques

and skills, like traditional martial arts, in this case, however, they lose

their identity. Master Hayashi Teruo claims that “The career is very

difficult for them to develop in the true art ofkarate.

There is nothing wrong in training the basic techniques of the

tournament and becoming the master o f sports, but the art of karate

is not a sport, it takes a self-defense and it is quite another matter. D

o

not build a house using only two or three tools. There is a need for

a variety of tools to achieve your goal. On the other hand, the training

should not end at the moment when you take off the gi. Without the

proper spirit ofkarate will be o f little use”8. Fighting sports competition

and is always present together with the dominance over another man

(player).

The martial arts frequently due to lack of skill a player “exceeds

acceptable limits”9. But even the most attached to the tradition students

are keen to take part in competitions and derive satisfaction from

participating in this competition. Sensei Takayuki Mikami said that

improper conduct on competition undermines the spirit o f martial arts.

He added that the competition will learn to cope with stress stemming

from performing in front o f a large group of people10.

8 J. M. Fraguas, Legendarni Mistrzowie Karate, Warszawa 2008, p. 49. 9 Ibidem, p. 41.

10 Ibidem, p. 174.

In this martial arts trainer directs sports career and education

of the athlete. The training is to gain victory, medals, prizes or just

beat your opponent. The coach should be a role model for the player,

the ideal and the teacher. As Wojciech J. Cynarski writes, the coach

must behave impeccably, have appropriate moral stance, it must be

mandatory, disciplined, calm, cultured and have the ability to live

together in a group11.

In his statements sensei Takayuki Kubota concludes that player

should be forced to exercise in order to discovering his weakness

being under pressure. Then the weak points fills coach by using his

experience. After such training, the participants become good players

with educated instincts. Master Takayuki Kubota watching players on

the competition, their behavior to then work on their weak points in the

dojo. Yes trains a very good tournament players. This means that many

of the great masters follows the way of sports and martial arts, but

in most they themselves do not take up sport competition. Masutatsu

Oyama12 said that anyone who practiced karate, should be guided

by the principles of Budo, and those who are not guided by these

principles, treat them just as fun. Maybe masters want to test perfection

of their own style carried over from the battlefield to the mat and ring

sport. Spectacular performances fights that can be shown in the media,

encourage people from the world o f martial arts to participate in these

projects. Trainings aimed at developing sportsman certainly get worse

when the player seeks to maximize results. Almost always, the players

are dedicated to the techniques that work in combat sports. This makes

player practicing only a narrow range of techniques.

Sport leads player to continuous anxiety, uncertainty, haunting

him by fears about the next fight - can never be sure of winning. It

can be said that sport has a positive impact on the development of 1

1

1

2

11

W. J. Cynarski, Sztuki budo..., op. cit., p. 48.

12

M. J. Lorden, Oyama Legenda i Dziedzictwo, Warszawa 2003, p. 47.

player, if the player observes the rules and regulations. Unfortunately,

too often the players break the rules of fair playjust to win. The road

from combat sports to the world of martial arts is long and tedious,

not everyone will be able to follow it. Master Richard Zieniawa says

that judo involves considerable knowledge concerning ways to fight

“absent” on sports mats13.

3. Combat systems - were created however on the basis

of martial arts. Their aim is to prepare the appropriate uniformed

services to ensure security in the society. From the martial arts used

those techniques that offer possibilities obtain this effect. Teacher is

here, expertspecialist - instructor. Their goal is to train and prepare

given formation for the accomplishment of tasks. Instructor is not

responsible for morality, for integrity, his goal is not to bringing up, but

the efficiency in the transfer of techniques and tactics. Louis Shomer

says that the Japanese have learned a lot from us, but they gave us

knowledge, which we did not have.

The Japanese gave us a weapon in the form of skills to use the

body14. In the collective work Mirosław Kuświk reminds about tradition

of training in 1923, in self-defens prison service based on ju-jitsu in Po­

land15. In its book, Intervention Techniques16 Kuświk says that have been

developed a set of techniques based on previously published book Self­

Defense (jiu-jitsu). Jan Dobrzyjałowski writes that the use of a baton tonfa

is essential for police officers17. The author argues, however, that the

par-13 R. Ruszniak, R. Zieniawa, JUDO pomost pomiędzy tradycją i współczesnością, Gdańsk 2003, s. 45.

14 L. Shomer, Policyjne Ju- Jitsu, transl. P.Obmiński, Gliwice 2008, p. 9.

15 A. Kaczmarek, M. Kuświk, S. Zasiadły, Z. Zimoch, Samoobrona, Kalisz 2007, p. 10. 16 M. Kuświk, P. Jarczewski, Techniki Interwencji, Kalisz 2011,p. 5.

17 J. Dobrzyjałowski, J. Hachulski, A. Rudnicki, Pałka typu tonfa techniki użytkowe, Legionowo 1996, p. 11.

m e d fo rc e s m u s t ta k e in to a c c o u n t th e n e e d to h a n d -to -h a n d fig h tin g a n d e v e n d ir e c t c o n fr o n ta tio n w ith th e e n e m y 18.

I t is w o rth n o tin g n e e d to d e v e lo p th e m a r tia l arts, fro m w h ic h th is k n o w le d g e a n d e x p e rie n c e e x p e rts a n d sp e c ia lis ts o f u n if o rm e d s e rv ic e s d e riv e to p e rf o rm b a s ic te c h n iq u e s a n d its u s e fo r th e p u rp o s e o f c re a tin g th e p e r f e c t tr a in in g s y s te m u n if o rm e d se rv ic e s. I t is a v e r y n a rr o w k n o w ­ le d g e , b u t h is se lf-c o n tro l is n e c e s s a ry fo r th e e ffic ie n t o p e ra tio n o f se r­ v ic e s . D o e s n o t d e e p p h ilo s o p h y h e re , a n d o n ly p a rtly w e g e t to k n o w im p o rta n c e o f th e th e o r y a n d te c h n iq u e s o f m a r tia l arts.

In th e c o m b a t s y s te m th e re is a n o ffic e r o f a p p ro p ria te s e rv ic e s w h o h a s a sp e c ific ta s k to p e rfo rm . H is tr a in in g re q u ire s d is c ip lin e a n d k n o w le d g e o f th e n e c e s s a ry fig h tin g te c h n iq u e s a n d k n o w le d g e o f ru le s a n d re g u la tio n s to b e a b le to p e rf o rm th e ta s k in g iv e n p ro f e s s io n a l g ro u p . F ro m th e m a r tia l a rts a re ta k e n th o s e te c h n iq u e s th a t g iv e w id e v a r ie ty o f a c tio n fo r e a c h u n if o rm e d se rv ic e s. T h e e x p e rt, s p e c ia lis t - th e in s tru c to r is to p re p a re th e o ffic e r to p e rf o rm sp e c ific ta sk s. L e a rn in g a n d tr a n s fe r a n d th e n im p ro v e m e n t o f a n a rr o w ra n g e o f sp e c ia liz e d te c h n iq u e s r e le v a n t to th e sc o p e o f th e ir d u tie s. M a n y e x p e rts c o m b a t sy s te m s d e riv e d fro m th e m a r tia l a rts, h e n c e th e d if fe re n t se rv ic e s h a v e fa c ilita te in tr a in in g th e ir su b o rd in a te s . I f it w e re n o t m a r tia l arts, tr a in in g o f s e rv ic e s a n d o ffic e rs w o u ld b e po o r. M a n y o f to d a y ’s c o m b a t sy s te m s w o u ld n e v e r h a v e b e e n i f th e c re a to rs o f sy s te m s d id n o t re a c h fo r e x p e rie n c e o f m a r tia l a rts m a s te rs . C o m m o n ly d o n o t d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n th e s e th re e c a te g o rie s . I t is b e lie v e d th a t th e te a c h e r in a ll o f th e m is th e o n e w h o te a c h e s th e sa m e , so j u s t m a r tia l arts. T h e p ra c tic e o f b o th c o m b a t s p o rts a n d m a r tia l a rts in c re a s e s d is ­ c ip lin e w ith d if fe re n t m o tiv a tio n s e x e rc is e rs (tra in in g o f h a rn e s s in g o u r o w n w e a k n e s s e s , tr a in in g o n h a rn e s s in g th e en em y , tr a in in g to o v e rc o m e th e e n e m y ). M a rtia l a rts tr a in in g ta k e s p la c e in d e p e n d e n tly o f m o o d , th e w e a th e r, d iffic u ltie s faced . In th e c o m b a t sp o rts p la y e r p re p a r in g th e ir m o - to r ic s in p e rio d s o f sta rt, a ll h is life fits in to c o m p e titio n s a n d to u r n a m e n ts 18 18 P. Modrzyński, Wojskowa Walka Wręcz, Kalisz 1998, p. 9.

(often practiced only kata tournament - effective). In the combat systems

officer should train the same way as people o f martial artsmust be ready

to perform a task regardless of the situation in which he is located. Both

the first group and the latter serve the community and that is the purpose

of their training. Both groups in difficult moments will be people ready to

make sacrifices and to help the community.

However, in order to better understand the essence of martial arts

and its central idea, which is the samurai ethos, should trace at least a few

of the conditions of its formation.

The origins of human existence in Japan dates back to 100 thou

­

sand years BC19. The Japanese have lived for centuries in complete isola

­

tion from the world and they decided about this, to which contacts have

limit, and how often it may be taken. The whole island nation stretches

along the coast of East Asia for 3000 km in length. Japan consists mainly

of four large islands. These are Hokkaido, Honsiu, Sikoku and Kiusiu and

the other with about 3600 islands of different sizes. Most o f the territory of

the country is covered by mountains, which account for about 80% of its

surface. The Japanese islands and the waters surrounding them manifest

themselves - and often in extreme form - elements. These include both

dangerous meteorological phenomenon, such as hail storm, typhoons,

floods, but also very typical for this area seismic activity. Despite this, the

population o f islands notes, however, that nature here has its own charm.

Climatic conditions and the whole surrounding, beautiful and at the same

time severe nature caused that the Japanese developed a two-high sensiti­

vity to the beauty of nature and the seasons. This was reflected in literature

and poetry. Stormy meteorological phenomenon sharpened the senses of

the people there, and at the same over the centuries have shaped Japanese

aesthetics and - most importantly - a sense of community in which the in

­

dividual realizes the need for collective cooperation. Aesthetics developed

in Japan from the very beginning of its history20, whereas strong collective 1

9

2

0

19

S. Turnbull, Samuraje - dzieje japońskich wojowników, Arkady, Warszawa 2007, p. 8.

20

P. Varley, Kultura japońska, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków

id e n tific a tio n o f Ja p a n e s e w a s s tre n g th e n e d in th e n e x t s ta g e s o f d e v e lo p ­ m e n t o f so c ie ty o f th e C o u n try o f C h e rry B lo ss o m s.

W h ile a n a ly z in g p re c is e ly J a p a n e s e c h a ra c te ris tic s , c a n b e d is tin ­ g u is h e d s e v e n g ro u p s o f c a u s e s o f its u n iq u e n e s s:

1. T h e J a p a n e s e is la n d s th e m s e lv e s c a u s e d th e n a tu r a l e m e r­ g e n c e o f th e s e c o m m u n itie s .

2. In th e c a se o f in c o r p o ra tio n o f fo re ig n id e a s in th e J a p a n e s e m e n ta lity w a s a c c o m p a n ie d b y a p ro c e s s o f a d a p ta tio n o f th e s e c o n c e p ts to th e e x is tin g lo c a l c u ltu ra l su b so il.

3. Is la n d m e n ta lity w a s a n d still is th e c a u se o f a stro n g se n s e o f se lf-id e n tity , a n d e v e n th e u n iq u e n e s s o f in h a b ita n ts o f L a n d o f th e R is in g Sun.

4. D e s p ite th e stro n g a u to n o m y a n d id e n tity , w h ic h h a s a lre a d y b e e n m e n tio n e d , a n im p o rta n t e le m e n t in sh a p in g m a n y a sp e c ts o f th e is la n d e r s ’ c u ltu re w a s stro n g im p a c t o f th e E m p ire o f C h in a , w h ic h p o s s e s s e d a v e ry a d v a n c e d c iv iliz a tio n a c h ie v e m e n ts o f b o th th e ir o w n a s w e ll a s c o m in g fro m th e la n d o f I n d i a 21.

5. A c ru c ia l e le m e n t o f th e J a p a n e s e m e n ta lity is c lo s e c o o p e ra ­ tio n a n d c a re fo r m u tu a l r e s p e c t a m o n g is la n d e rs liv in g in d iffic u lt liv in g c o n d itio n s a ls o re la te d (fro m n a tu r a l d is a s te rs ) w ith a sm a ll a m o u n t o f n a tu r a l re s o u rc e s.

6. In a n c ie n t h is to ry o f J a p a n a v e ry stro n g p o s itio n w a s o c c u ­ p ie d b y p ro v in c e s h a v in g a u to n o m y to m e a s u re v ir tu a lly o f s e p a ­ ra te sta te s. T h e y w e re th e s o u rc e o f a n in te n s e p o litic a l a n d m ilita r y riv a lry , w h ic h h a d a sig n ific a n t im p a c t o n sh a p in g a n d c o n s is te n t m a in te n a n c e o f th e c o n tin u ity o f th e c h iv a lric e th o s in th e L a n d o f th e R is in g Sun.

7. H is to ry a n d D e v e lo p m e n t o f J a p a n w e re a n d n o w a ls o are h e a v ily d o m in a te d b y th e id e a s o f s e rv ic e a n d n a tu r a l h ie - 21 2006, p. 4-7.

21 Por. H. G. Blocker, Ch. L. Starling, Filozofia japońska, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2008; Xinzhong Yao, Konfucjanizm, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków, 2009.

rarchy. This has both good sides (such as the continuity of transmis­

sion and gathering experience for new generations and a strong value

system conducive to social peace) as well and some negative (there is

a possibility of occurrence of Polyarchy22, where democracy of

elites may try to manipulate the public23).

The success the Japanese have today in various areas o f life is the

result of a shaped for thousands of years o f their mentality and the ac­

companying workaholism. Small areas o f agricultural land in the lowlands

forced them to climb up the slopes o f the mountains and the creation there

of small fields, specially adapted terraces. Arable land has always been

and still is a precious treasure for the whole nation. Therefore much care

was taken of each that inch, at the same time surrounding it with honorin

accordance with the transmission of native shinto24 religion. Inserting the

enormous amount of work in its proper maintenance. So initially were

created small areas of land divided into small plots. These activities have

earned in Japanese people strength of character through patient irrigation,

fertilization and careful scarifying soil. Through field work have devel­

oped in the Japanese features such as accuracy, reliability and habits of

collective efforts to target. Wet rice cultivation requires the participation

of a collective effort25.

It was for land for centuries battles took place, because the Japa­

nese mentality perpetuated, how it is a very valuable good and the fact that 2

2

2

3

2

4

2

5

22

poliarchy (z gr. poli - a lot of, arche - rule) - definition o f a democratic political

regime, a modern democracy. The concept was introduced in 1953, by the American political scientist Robert Dahl. Polyarchy is characterized by the granting o f political rights to a large part o f the population and the ability to confront and overthrow the vote o f the highest dignitaries o f government - the fundamental role is being played by political rivalries.

23

Comp. C. Andressen, Krótka historia Japonii, Dialog, Warszawa 2004, p. 18-19; R. Tsunoda, W. T. de Bary, D. Keene, Sources o f Japanese Tradition, New York 1959.

24

Comp. S. Arutjunow, G. Swietłow, Starzy i nowi bogowie Japonii, PIW, Warszawa 1973; W. Kotański, Opowieści o pierwszych władcach japońskich, Iskry, Warszawa 1990.

25

See. C. Andressen, op. cit., p. 27; J. Tubielewicz J., Historia Japonii, Ossolineum, Wrocław 1984; P. Varley, op. cit., p. 5; Keiji Imamura, Prehistoric Japan, Routledge 1996, s. 130-133; O. Ratti, A. Westbrook, Secrets o f the Samurai: A Survey o f the Martial

Arts o f the Feudal Japan, Booksales Publishing, New York 1999.

84

is th e b a s is fo r e s ta b lis h in g a p o w e r b a s e ru le . C u rre n tly , th e J a p a n e s e c a n a ff o rd to c a lm e r a p p ro a c h to c a rin g fo r a g ric u ltu re b e c a u s e o f th e e c o n o ­ m ic a lly stro n g a n d m o d e r n n a tio n a l e c o n o m y . T h in k in g o f m o d e r n p e o p le , h o w e v e r, re ta in s in th e m e m o ry o f fo rm e r fr e q u e n t d ro u g h ts , n a tu r a l d is a s ­ te rs , a n d th e lo w le v e l o f p ro d u c tio n o c c u rrin g fo rm e r tim e s c o n s id e ra b le is o la tio n fro m n e ig h b o r in g c o u n trie s. T h e re fo re th e J a p a n e s e p u t o n th e in d u s try to d ay , m o d e r n ity a n d tra d e , n o t o n ly w ith A s ia b u t a ls o w ith th e w h o le w o rld . T h e re is e v e n ta lk a b o u t th e A rc o f F re e d o m a n d P ro s p e rity a s a s p e c ia l p o litic a l in itia tiv e o f Ja p a n , w h e re c ru c ia l ro le to b e p la y e d b y th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d J a p a n a n d I n d ia a n d A u s tr a lia 26.

J a p a n to d a y is o n e o f th e m o s t p o w e rfu l c o u n trie s in th e w o rld in te r m s o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t. To a la rg e e x te n t, th e ir p o s itio n a n d to ­ d a y ’s s u c c e s s o w e s c o n s is te n tly c u ltiv a te d tr a d itio n s b a s e d o n th e sa m u ra i c o d e o f B u s h id o (lite ra lly W a y o f W arrio r, a c o d e o f e th ic s a n d e tiq u e tte s a m u ra i)27.

I t is n o t e a s y to d e fin e c le a rly th e b e g in n in g o f th e fo rm a tio n o f th e m a r tia l a rts a s a n a u to n o m o u s c u ltu ra l p h e n o m e n o n - b u d o , in c o n tr a s t to th e h is to ry o f o th e r b e tte r- k n o w n a re a s o f life th e is la n d e rs . I t is v e ry d if ­ fic u lt to g e t to th e ro o ts , fro m w h ic h g ro w b a s ic ru le s o f b u d o a n d m e n ta l fo u n d a tio n o f J a p a n e s e M a r tia l A rts ev e n ts. S p e c u la tin g g u e s s e s , lin k in g to th e m c e rta in fa c ts, is tr y in g to c re a te d if fe re n t th e o r ie s o f th e fo rm a tio n o f n u m e ro u s v a rie tie s o f M a rtia l A rts in Jap an .

A c c o rd in g to T a n a k a , th e s ig n ific a n t c o m p o n e n ts o f w a rrio rs im ­ p a c t o n sh a p in g th e J a p a n e s e m e n ta lity a n d c o d e o f B u s h id o to o k p la c e a s e a rly as th e s ix th c e n tu r y B C . “ M a n y h is to ric a l s o u rc e s re p o r te d th a t m a r tia l a rts p r a c titio n e rs h a v e w o rk e d 2 5 0 0 y e a rs ag o . H o w e v e r, m a r tia l a rts d e v e lo p e d in m a n y p a rts o f th e E a s t w o r ld a n d h a v e a lo t o f te a c h e rs . T h e re h a v e b e e n v a rio u s th e o r ie s a b o u t th e o rig in o f j u - ji ts u . O n e o f th e m 26 See A speech by Taro Aso, Minister o f Foreign Affairs o f Japan, presented in the

Japanese Institute o f Foreign Affairs, 30 Nov. 2006, http://www.pl.emb-japan.go.jp/

policy/speechlpl.htm (30.05.2012).

27 J. Miłkowski, Encyklopedia Sztuk Walki, ALGO, Toruń 2008, p. 32.

- th e c o n c e p t o f K irb y - w h o say s th a t th e m a s te rs o f ju - ju ts u c a m e fro m Ja p a n , o r c a m e fro m o th e r p a rts o f A sia . In C h in a (2 6 7 4 B C ) is s a id a b o u t th e c re a tio n o f w u -s h u - a s y s te m th a t u s e d th e b o d y in s e lf-d e fe n s e ” 28.

T h e n a m e ju - ju ts u to h a n d c o m b a t fo r th e first tim e w a s u s e d b y th e m a s te r A k y a m a S h iro b e i Y o sh ito k i29. Its o rig in c a n b e tr a c e d w h e re a s in c o m p le m e n ta ry s y s te m o f fig h tin g th a t b ro u g h t th e In d ia n m o n k , p a ­ tr ia rc h o f Z e n B u d d h is m , B o d h id h a rm a 30. T h e first m e n tio n o f J u - J u ts u fo rm s c o m e in th e ra n g e o f 7 7 2 -4 8 1 B C . A n d th e b e g in n in g s o f a s p e c ia ­ liz e d m a r tia l a rts, n in - ju ts u d a te b a c k to th e p e rio d b e tw e e n 5 0 0 -3 0 0 B C a n d p ro b a b ly h a v e C h in e se o rig in s. N in -ju ts u te r m w a s w id e ly u s e d in th e lite ra tu re b u -ju ts u (m a rtia l arts). A m o n g o th e r th in g s , sp e c ia liz e d in to iri- n o -ju ts u a n d c h ik a iri-n o -ju ts u . In 2 3 0 B C , th e J a p a n h a s d e v e lo p e d c h ik u r a k u ra b e sto c k s th a t w e re la te r in c o r p o ra te d in to th e j u - j u t s u te c h n iq u e s 31.

A n im p o rta n t ro le in th e Ja p a n e s e v a rie tie s M a rtia l A rts h a s p la y e d a h is to ry o f sh a p in g th e o rig in s o f Ja p a n e s e sta te a n d its m y th ic a l o rig in s g iv in g th e J a p a n e s e Is la n d s a sp e c ific m e n ta l a tm o s p h e re a n d u n iq u e ­ n e ss . I t a ll sta rte d w ith th e b e g in n in g o f th e s e v e n g o d s “ a t th e fo re fro n t o f A m e -n o M in a k a n u s h i, T a k a m im u s u b i a n d K a m im u s u b i” 32 a n d its su b s e q u e n t d e s c e n d a n t o f th e s u n g o d d e s s A m a te r a s u , w h o h a s s e n t h is g ra n d s o n N in ig i’eg o , „ g iv in g h im in e te rn a l p o s s e s s io n o f th e J a p a n e s e a rc h ip e la g o ” 33. N in ig i d id n o t h u rr y to ta k in g p o w e r, b e c a u s e th e w h o le tim e h e w a s b u s y w ith p e rs o n a l issu e s.

28 G. Kirby, Ju-jutsu podstawowe techniki łagodnej sztuki, Warszawa 1994, p. 9; comp. B. A. Haines, Karate S History and Traditions, Charles E. Tuttle Co., Tokyo 1968. 29 Zob. T. Ambroży, Samoobrona: podręcznik metodyczny dla instruktorów, TKKF ZG, Warszawa, 2001; idem, Trening holistyczny metodą kompleksowej uprawy ciała, EAS, Kraków, 2004.

30 Zob. P. Hansen (transl.), The Zen Teaching o f Bodhidharma, Empty Bowl, Washington 1987.

31 Por. Nihongi: Chronicles o f Japan from the Earliest o f Times toA.D. 697, W. G. Aston (translator), Tuttle Publishing, London 2005.

32 J. Tubielewicz, Od mitu do historii, Wydawnictwo TRIO, Warszawa 2006, p.. 23 and others...

33 J. Tubielewicz, HistoriaJaponii, op. cit., p. 32.

Only his grandson Jimmu (posthumous name Kamuyamato

Iwarehiko), with the support of the goddess Amaterasu, defeated all

opponents and set up the capital in Kashihara. „W hen you move into

a new residence in Kashiharze Iwarehiko made enthronement - pro­

claimed him self emperor.

This is the most important moment in the myths o f dynastic. (...)

Nihongi as the date o f accession gives first Day first The month o f 660

BC. The date o f 660 BC, came into official mythology. In the Meiji period,

was began the count the years of existence of the empire, beginning o f that

year. It is unclear how this day has been changed to February 11th (...) In

any case, now that day is celebrated in Japan as Day of Remembrance for

Assumptions of State (Kenkoku Kinen-no Hi)”34,

Such were the beginnings of the legendary Yamato state, which

evolved into today’s Japan. Since then, dates back to the legendary re­

cords submitted by migratory storytellers (kataribe35), which faithfully

reproduced along with the supporting documents be of a religious nature

(Kaden - Pedigree messages,jinja engi - Shinto texts, Jiin engi - budsudö

texts - the way o f the Buddha) and administrative (fudoki36) led to the cre­

34 J. Tubielewicz, Od mitu do historii, op. cit., p. 46.

35 kataribe ( Jap.) - "storyteller". “Storytellers" were entrusted at the court to store in their memory the genealogy, myths and legends about rulers, because they guaranteed a true message, as they had no right to add or remove anything of the remembered text. One of these kataribe was Hieda-no-Are (dates of birth and death unknown). According to some researchers, it was the name o f a man. Comp. W. Kotański, W kręgu shintoizmu, t. I, DIALOG, Warszawa 1995.

36 fudoki (Jap.) - descriptions o f customs and land; these works contained data topographical data, geographical names, data on the economy, along with local myths, and provided descriptions o f traditional customs.

a tio n in th e e a rly e ig h th c e n tu r y K o jik i37 o ra z N ih o n g i38. A c c o rd in g to th e K o ta h s k i „ th e o ld e s t c h ro n ic le s o f J a p a n w ill b e c o n s id e re d a w o rk e n title d K o jik i in 71 2 . T h is title c a n b e tr a n s la te d a s th e B o o k o f p a s t e v e n ts ” 39. A n ­ o th e r s o u rc e fo r th e stu d y o f m y th o lo g y is n o rito (a c o lle c tio n o f p ra y e rs a n d m a g ic sp e lls) w ritte n in 9 2 7 y e a rs 40. Y o u c a n m o s t lik e ly a ss u m e d , fo llo w in g th e h e ro ic s tru g g le o f th e m y th ic a l a n c e sto rs, th e p ro g e n ito rs o f th e sa m u ra i c la s s, th a t th e s e c h a lle n g e s re q u ire in te n s e c o m b a t sy ste m . To e ffe c tiv e ly tr a in th e a rm y m u s t b e e d u c a tio n a l sy s te m s a n d d if fe re n t sty le s (s y ste m s) fight. B e c a u s e th e y w e re p re p a r in g so ld ie rs fo r th e e ffe c tiv e p r o ­ te c tio n o f th e b o rd e r s a n d th e m a in te n a n c e o f o rd e r w ith in th e co u n try . F ro m m y th o lo g ic a l tim e s to th e p re s e n t day, m a r tia l a rts a re a n in s e p a ra b le p a r t o f th e c u ltu re o f Ja p a n .

O n e o f th e o ld e s t fo rm s o f M a r tia l A rts , a c c o rd in g to S erg e M o l, w a s m a rtia l a rt c a lle d K o ry u o f ju - ju ts u u s e d b y w a rrio rs. „ S o m e o f u s, in o rd e r to e m p h a s iz e its re m a rk a b le a g e s a y th a t it is o v e r te n th o u s a n d y e a rs ” 41. In th e E d o p e rio d (1 6 0 0 -1 8 6 8 ), w h ic h w a s a b it la te r th a n th e 37 Kojiki The book ofpast events which wasfounded in 712 on the orders o f the Emperor.

The author (editor) was 0-no Yasumaro - an outstanding intellectualist, educated in the way o f the classics o f Chinese imperial court clerks at the turn ofV II / VIII century. Kojiki consists o f three coils. A characteristic feature o f the Kojiki is consistent reasoning and logic lecture. It is worth noting that the preface was written in Chinese, therest in Japanese. Currently, one o f the most outstanding "kojikologists" in Poland was Professor Wieslaw Kotański [d. 2005], who translated into Polish Kojiki, translating also the antonyms and teonyms. Comp. J. Tubielewicz, Od mitu do historii, op. cit., p. 17; W. Kotański, W kręgu shintoizmu, 1.1: Przeszłość ije j tajemnice, Dialog, Warszawa 1995, p.. 154; W. Kotański, W kręgu shintoizmu, t. II: Doktryna, kult, organizacja, Dialog, Warszawa 1995; idem Kojiki czyli Księga dawnych wydarzeń, t. I, II, transl. with commentaries by Wiesław

Kotański, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1986.

38 Nihongi (Nihon shoki) czyli Kronika Japonii (lub Kroniki japońskie) — founded on the orders o f the Emperor in720 r.; written and edited by prince Toneri (676-735).

Nihongi consists o f thirty scrolls in chinese language. Comp. J. Tubielewicz, Od mitu do historii, op. cit., p. 17-18.

39 Zob. W. Kotański, W kręgu shintoizmu, 1.1, op. cit., p. 138.

40 norito — collection o f prayers, incantations, invocations, whose origins date back to the

preliterate, were writtenin the tenth century. Norito were created by priests, not the court elite, intellectuals, who were the authors ofK igi (collective nameKojiki andNihongi).

41 S. Mol, Japońskie Sztuki Walki. Przewodnikpo koryujujutsu, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz 2003, p. XI.

beginning of the dominance of military rule, during the reign of the third

shogunate - Tokugawa, it was a time of peace, in which many varia­

tions o f budö could be developed and systematized, and the importance

gained a comprehensive education of knighthood. The well-known samu­

rai, Daidoji Yuzan, author of budö shoshinshfi not skip the opportunity

for discreet, but also strongly emphasize the importance of what was the

merit o f Tokugawa, namely that „there is now in the empire blissful peace

and although the boys from samurai families are not deprived of martial

training, this, however, does not mention this to anyone, as before forcing

them to start a military career before the age o f fifteen or sixteen years of

age”42. According to Yuzana, „seven or eight year old boy should become

familiar with the Book Four, Five and Seven Books o f Military Texts and

learn calligraphy”43. In the Kamakura period (1185-1333) and Muromachi

(1336-1573) young samurai began teaching fencing at least 13 years of

age44. It should be noted that since the time of Minamoto Yoritomo „axis

of” self-improvement samurai marked the directive ordering him to „fol­

low the way of the sword and literature”, which was later reflected in the

record o f the first article Buke shohatto (rules of military families) in 1615

and is one of the inseparable elements o f the Code o f Bushido, recogni­

zing that in order not to become, as says Yuzan, “simpleton” is, in addition

to exercise, proper study of literature, and in particular, the history and

known, which could be a role model biographies.

Many martial arts experts believe that the styles of ju-jutsu is

a compilation of ancient forms o f budö. Ju-jutsu, the Japanese combat

system, has its important place in budö Gendai (modern budö). Charac­

terized by a high versatility of his students and a rich arsenal of combat

techniques. Taking into account the Japanese mentality, ju-jutsu marked

its presence in shaping the identity of the Japanese people and the strength- 4

2

4

3

4

4

42

Dajdoji Yuzan, Kodeks młodego samuraja. Budo shoshinshu, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz 2004.

43

Ibidem.

44

See О Ratti, A. Westbrook, Secrets o f the Samurai, op. cit. (Polish edition: Sekrety

samurajów, DiamondBooks, Bydgoszcz 1997, p. 79).

e n in g o f th e ir c o u n tr y b y p a rtic ip a tin g in th e tr a in in g o f m e m b e rs o f th e m ilita r y a d m in is tra tio n , th e a rm y a n d in th e e d u c a tio n sy s te m o f c h ild re n a n d y o u n g p e o p le . A n in d ire c t b u t h ig h ly sig n ific a n t e v id e n c e fo r s u c h a c la im c a n b e a sa m u ra i c o d e , w h ic h a m o n g o th e r th in g s w o u ld n o t le t s a m u ra i s tu m b le w ith a p e rs o n o f lo w e r ra n k , u s in g a s w o rd o r o th e r w e a p o n . A ls o , lo w e r- ra n k in g s a m u ra i r a r e ly fo u g h t a g a in s t a rm s a g a in s t c o m m o n e rs. S u c h b e h a v io r le a d s to a sim p le c o n c lu s io n - s a m u ra i w a s b o u n d b y a c o d e o f c o n d u c t to liv e in d ig n ity , a n d th u s p o s s e s s e d th e s p irit o f B u sh id o . T h e re fo re , h e u s e d p e rf e c tly in c o m b a t a n d in e v e ry d a y a c ­ tiv itie s , h is o w n b o d y . In th e c h ro n ic le th e N ih o n g i o f 72 0 N .E . n u m e ro u s re f e re n c e s c o n c e rn c o m p e titiv e b a ttle , b u t o fte n th e s e w e re e le m e n ts o f c o m b a t45. T h e m e n tio n o f a n o ld c h ro n ic le o f te c h n iq u e s is n o th in g lik e a te m i (s trik e s h is h a n d s a n d k ic k in g h is le g s in th e se n s itiv e a re a s o f th e o p p o n e n t) 46. A te m i te c h n iq u e s w e re b a s e d o n a n a n c ie n t v e rs io n o f th e S u m o b e lo n g in g to K o b u d o (o ld b u d ö ) a n d m o d e r n m a r tia l a rts s u c h as ju - ju ts u a n d k a ra te -d o a n d A ik id o - o rig in a lly b e a rin g th e n a m e A ik ib u d o

in c lu d e d in b u d ö G e n d a i (m o d e rn b u d ö ) 47.

I t is w o rth a d d in g th a t su m o w re s tle rs e n jo y e d a n d c o n tin u e s to e n jo y c o n s id e ra b le r e s p e c t in Ja p a n . T h is h a s d e e p h is to ric a l re a s o n s. O n c e th e y fig h t ta k e s p la c e , re p r e s e n tin g o n th e field s o f b a ttle e n e m y a rm ies. R e s u lts o f s u c h a s tru g g le b e tw e e n tw o S u m o to ri w a s tr e a te d a s a d e c is io n o f th e b a ttle . „ I t c a n b e m e n tio n e d th a t e v e n th ir ty y e a rs a g o S u m o to ri sta n d in s e c o n d p la c e to k n ig h ts c a ste s a m u ra i”48.

E x p la in in g th e m e a n in g o f th e J a p a n e s e te r m j u - ju t s u , w e c a n sa y th a t it m e a n s „ g e n tle a rt o f se lf-d e fe n se , it is a s im p le d e fin itio n o f a v e ry 45 Nihongi: Chronicles ofjapanfrom theEarliest ofTimes toA.D. 697, op. cit.

46 Atemi - sensitive points of the body, strikes, or compressions on sensitive areas of the human body, enablingtheoverpowermgoftheopponent(attacker); Comp. E. O. Reishauer,

japan: Past and Present, New York 1946; M. Tedeshi, Essential Anatomy fo r Martial and Healing Arts, Weatherhill, New York 2000; F. J. Norman, japoński wojownik: trening i ćwiczenie samurajów, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz 2006.

47 F. Tanaka, Sztuki walki samurajów, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz 2005, text from cover. 48 F. J. Norman, op. cit., p. 70.

pcomplex art”49. We find many of the entries mainly in the form of tradi­

tional Densho talking about different types of Martial Arts, in which the

body was used as an effective weapon used to defeat the enemy. Discussed

with that the possibility of using both hands and feet using atemi tech­

niques and lever on the upper and lower limbs. In the old records already

mentioned rolls Densho, we find names such as, for example, Yawara50.

A large number of such texts we know thanks to the efforts of the Ameri­

can Serge Mola. He published his research in his book entitled Japanese

Martial Arts. Guide to koryujujutsu51

Often in the old records, the above-mentioned Densho, there is

a combat martial art and combat system simply referred to as bugei or

bu-jutsu52. The Japanese terms translated as „military affairs and the art of

war”, and self-improvement by striving to master the craft o f war. All open

hand techniques were taught with complementary ways of combat wea­

pons, such as sword - katana, spear - yari, bow Japanese - yumi and other

weapons, which used a samurai53. Such a complementary system o f trai

-ning of the Samurai determined bugei juhappan term54 Together consti­

tuted for all the training that shaped a complete, well-prepared warrior on

the battlefield clashes, as well as for the service ofhis sovereign.

49

ju (Jap.) - soft, flexible, gentle; comp. G. Kirby, Jujutsu podstawowe techniki łagodnej

sztuki, Warszawa 1994, p. 11; T. Ambroży (ed.), Ju-jitsu sportowe: proces szkolenia: (podręcznik trenera) [Sport Ju-jitsu: schooling process: (coaches guidelines)'], European

Association for Security, Kraków 2007.

50

yawara - Hand combat art, which in its initial phase developed directly on the battlefield at the time of feudal Japan. Yawara, as well as subsequentju-jitsu, used the holds, throws, locks and choking, eventually became a form o f fighting with knives and short swords. It quickly became an integral part of the training o f the Japanese warrior. This system was designed for those who could not boast of combat experience. The techniques were simple and usually practiced without an arm, so it was said o f it goshinjutsu (martial arts).

51 C

omp. S. Mol, op. cit., F. J. Norman, op. cit.

52

D. F. Draeger, Tradycyjne Budo, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz 2006

.

53

Ibidem, p. 10.

54

Bugei Juhappan - complementary samurai training system comprising 18 warfare subsystems, from the sword and the bow through hand combat to the perfect use of firearms; comp. F. Tanaka, Samurai Fighting Arts. The Spirit and the Practice, Kodansha International Ltd, Tokyo 2003; por. J. Piwowarski, Samodoskonalenie i bezpieczeństwo

w samurajskim Kodeksie Bushido, Collegium Columbinum, Kraków 2011.

T o d a y th e w o rld is c o m m o n ly b e lie v e d th a t th e ju - ju ts u c o m e s fro m Jap an . B u t fo r th e c u rio u s re s e a rc h e rs a n d p ra c titio n e rs o f M a rtia l A rts seem s h ig h ly p ro b a b le h y p o th e s is th a t th e ju - ju ts u c a n c o m e fro m C h in a, K o rea, a n d e v e n In d ia. S u p p o rte rs o f th is h y p o th e s is in c lu d e O y a m a M a s u ta ts u 55 o ra z H a in e s56. “ S o m e o f th e te c h n iq u e s o f ju jits u c a n b e fo u n d in k u n g -fu a n d k a rate. In A sia , e sta b lish e d o v e r 30 d iffe re n t ty p e s o f m a rtia l arts, w h ic h is a c o m b in a tio n o f d iffe re n t te c h n iq u e s o f k u n g -fu , k a ra te a n d ju - ju t s u “ 57. F a r th e o rig in a l so u rce, p h ilo so p h ic a l m e s sa g e w h ic h in c lu d e b a s e d o n M a r­ tia l A rts is In d ia 58. In d ia h a s a h is to ric a l le g a c y o f a p h ilo so p h ic a l-re lig io u s, so cial, a n d m ilitary , w h ic h sh a p e d a t e a rlie r th a n elsew h ere. T h is w a s the le g a c y s u c h a m e a s u re , th a t e v e n in th e em p ire o f C h in a it w a s In d ia o rig i­ n a lly w e re c a lle d “th e M id d le K in g d o m ” . P ro b a b ly c o m e s fro m In d ia D e a r E m p e ro r c o n c e p t w h ic h is a n o b le id e a l o f ro a d w arrio r. T h is c o n c e p t is a ss o c ia te d w ith th e figure o f th e fa m o u s E m p e ro r A ś o k i59. M a rtia l A rts w a n ­ d e re d fro m In d ia to T ibet, th e n to C h in a, th e n to K o rea, O k in a w a a n d Jap an . T h e y w e re a n in te g ra l p a rt o f sy ste m s o f th in k in g p e o p le o f th e E ast, w h ich , a lth o u g h th e y h a v e in e a c h o f th e s e c o u n tries, sp ecific identity, th e y h a v e a lo t in co m m o n . I t h a s b e e n sa id h e re a b o u t th e u n ity o f re lig io n s a n d a c ­ c o m p a n y in g w ith a p h ilo so p h ic a l sy ste m s th e F a r E a st60.

In th e h is to ry o f J a p a n ’s a m a jo r im p a c t o n th e sh a p e o f M a rtia l A rts a n d th e m e n ta lity o f th e J a p a n e s e , h a v e m ilita r y a n d p o litic a l a c tio n s o f g re a t p e rs o n a litie s o f Ja p a n e s e k n ig h ts - sa m u ra i. F o r e x a m p le , o n e o f th e s e g re a t in d iv id u a ls w a s P rin c e S h ö to k u . H e w a s n o t o n ly a p a tr o n o f 55 M. Oyama, This is karate, Japan Publication Inc., Tokyo 1973, p. 308 and other. 56 B. A. Haines, Karate’sH istory and Traditions, op. cit.

57 K. Kondratowicz, Jiu-Jitsu sztuka walki obronnej, Wydawnictwa Wojskowe, Warszawa 1991, p. 15.

58 J. Kieniewicz, Historia Indii, Ossolineum, Wrocław 1985.

59 Ibidem, s. 78 i n.; H. Nakamura, Systemy myślenia ludów Wschodu. Indie-Chiny-

Tybet-Japonia, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2005, p. 452-457;

F. Tanaka, Sztuki Walki..., op. cit., p. 97; comp. J. Piwowarski, Samodoskonalenie..., op.

cit.

60 H. Nakamura, op. cit., s. 11; comp. J. Piwowarski, J. Piwowarski, Modern Bushido.

Prolegomena do jedności czterech religii w administracji i zarządzaniu według wzorów dalekowschodnich, „ZeszytNaukowy Apeiron”, nr 1, Kraków2007, p. 20-30.

B u d d h is t te m p le s , a n d th e s y s te m o f w a r / b a ttle , b u t h e is a ls o c o n s id e re d a s th e f o u n d e r o f fo rm o f th e J a p a n e s e c o n s titu tio n - J fis h ic h ijo -K e m p o (T h e rig h t o f se v e n te e n a rtic le s ) fro m th e y e a r 604.

A s w rite s a b o u t h im T a n ak a, c o n te m p o ra r y J a p a n e s e e x p e rt b u d ö : “ P rin c e S h o to k u w a s a sta u n c h B u d d h is t a n d a m a s te r o f m a r tia l a rts ” 61. „ T h e rig h t o f S e v e n te e n A rtic le s ” c o n ta in s v a lu a b le e th ic a l g u id e lin e s fo r b o th th e s a m u ra i a n d th e a d m in is tra tio n o f th e E m p ire o f J a p a n 62. „T o a c h ie v e th is g o a l [w h ic h in d ic a te d S h o to k u ] w e re in te n d e d b o th C o n fu ­ c ia n is m a n d B u d d h is m as w e ll a s sh in to iz m . In th e 6 0 4 , th e a b o v e -m e n ­ tio n e d p ro v is io n s w e re is s u e d w ith a n e m p h a s is o n th e lo y a lty a n d o b e ­ d ie n c e , g o o d m a n n e rs , in c o r ru p tib ility a n d d ilig e n c e - w h ic h p ro v e s th e ir C o n fu c ia n o rig in . In th e s c h o o l fo r o ffic ia ls a ls o w e re ta u g h t th e p rin c ip le s a n d d o c trin e s o f B u d d h is m 63. “ In te re s tin g ly J fis h ic h ijo -K e m p o - a fo rm o f th e J a p a n e s e C o n s titu tio n (T h e r ig h t o f se v e n te e n a rtic le s), h a s n e v e r b e e n c a n c e le d a n d th e ru le s a re v a lid to th e p re s e n t day, d e s p ite th e fa c t th a t c u r­ r e n tly th e re is a m o d e r n J a p a n e s e c o n s titu tio n o f 1947.

In th e th e H e ia n p e rio d (7 9 4 -1 1 8 5 r) s lo w ly in c r e a s e d th e p o te n ­ tia l o f b u s h i class. T h is w a s c o n n e c te d b o th w ith ra is in g c o m b a t sk ills, as w e ll a s th e g ro w in g ro le o f e d u c a tio n in a s u c c e s s fu l c a re e r s a m u ra i64. T h e n e x t p e rio d in th e h is to ry o f J a p a n is K a m a k u ra p e rio d (1 1 8 5 -1 3 3 3 ). T h is p e rio d w a s fo r th e C o u n try C h e rry B lo s s o m c ru c ia l im p o rta n c e , sin c e o n th e s e v e n lo n g c e n tu rie s o f su p re m a c y in te rm s o f p o litic a l p o w e r, g a in e d m ilita r y b u s h i cla ss. In th e tw e lf th c e n tu r y th e b a k u fu m ilita r y g o v e rn m e n t s e a te d in K a m a k u ra , ie h a l f o f th e g o v e rn m e n t. B a k u fu lite r a lly m e a n s “ th e ru le u n d e r th e te n t,” w h ic h re f e rs to th e tr a d itio n o f c o m m a n d u n d e r th e te n t d u rin g m ilita r y c a m p a ig n s b y th e sh o g u n - th e “ fie ld ” v ic e g e re n t. T h is g o v e rn m e n t fo rm e d in th e h is to ric a l p e rio d k n o w n a s K a m a k u ra -61 F. Tanaka F., Sztuki walki..., op. cit.,p. 18; J. Miłkowski, Sztuki i sporty walki Dalekiego

Wschodu, Sport i Turystyka, Warszawa 1987, p. 9.

62 M. Kanert, Buddyzmjapoński, TRIO, Warszawa 2004. 63 W. Kotański, Wkręgu shintoizmu, 1.1, op. cit., p. 110.

64 See. O. Ratti, A. Westbrook, Sekrety samurajów, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz 1997, p. 76.

th e p n a m e o f th e n e w h e a d q u a rte rs sh o g u n . T h is p e rio d is a tim e o f th e in c re a s in g c la n s tru g g le fo r in flu e n c e a n d p o w er. J a p a n a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e “ ru le u n d e r th e te n t” w a s m ire d in c o n flic ts. W ar a fte r w a r c le a rly re in fo rc e th e n e e d fo r g o o d m ilita r y a n d s tre n g th e n e d th e p o s itio n o f th e sa m u ra i, so th e ir m ilita r y c ra f t h a s g ro w n to r a n k h ig h p e rf e c tio n is m in th e h e a t o f b a t t l e w ith th e enem y.

T h e e v e n t c o n s titu te s a sig n ific a n t re tu rn fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e m ilita r y fo rc e s o f N ip p o n , a n d a ls o m a r tia l a rts b u d ö w a s th e y e a r 1192 w h e n M in a m o to Y o rito m o w a s th e first p e rm a n e n t sh o g u n o f Ja p a n . A s a re s u lt o f th is e v e n t, th e e m p e ro r r e m a in e d still a s d o m in a n t, b u t a c tu a lly o n b e h a lf o f th e p o w e r e x e rc is e d o n b e h a lf o f th e S h o g u n . H o w e v e r, w e re o fte n fig h tin g fo r p o w e r. A n im p o rta n t p o litic a l ro le in J a p a n h a v e a ls o R e g e n ts o f b o th th e E m p e ro r (s e ssh ö o r k a m p a k h ) 65 a n d th e R e g e n ts o f th e sh o g u n s s h ik k e n 66. In th e tu r b u le n t h is to ry o f Ja p a n , m a r k e d b y r iv a lry fo r d o m in a n c e h a v in g le t a ll in o n e to u n ite th e w h o le c o u n tr y a t tim e s , th a t p ro v id e n tia l p e rs o n a lity tu r n e d o u t to b e re g e n t. In th e y e a r 1219 th e sh o g u n w a s m u rd e re d , w h o s e in so m e se n se su c c e e d e d b y th e F u jiw a r a c la n N a k a to m i. In 1221, E m p e ro r G o to b a tr ie d to r e g a in th e p o w e r a n d re d u c e th e T o k u g a w a ru le - lo s t in th e fa c e o f fu ­ tu re S h o g u n A s h ik a g a T a k a u ji (1 3 0 5 -1 3 5 8 ). A n im p o rta n t ro le in th e s k ill­ fu l c o n d u c t o f b a ttle s a n d w a rs s tra te g y in s a m u ra i p la y e d b y v ie w in g th e ir p o te n tia l in v a s io n s o f th e M o n g o ls K u b ila j c h a n a (th e first in 1274 a n d s e c o n d in 1281). T h e J a p a n e s e w o n th is w a r th a n k s to th e ir d e te r m in a tio n a n d th e fa v o ra b le fa te - th e M o n g o l fle e t w a s d e s tro y e d a lo n g w ith th e e n tire a rm y b y ty p h o o n c a lle d k a m ik a z e “ d iv in e w in d ” 6712. H o w e v e r, th e ro le o f th e O rg a n iz in g k a m p a k u o f H o jo c la n w a s a ls o o f g re a t im p o rta n c e h e re , a s e v e n in th e a d m in is tra tio n b u ild in g o f fo rtific a tio n s o n th e is la n d 65 Sesshö and kampaku (Jap.) - Regents in the former imperial Japan. Sesshö held the regency during the minority o f the emperor, and kampaku served as adviser and chief minister. Both o f these offices wore a common name sekkan.

66 Shikken (Jap.) - an official in Japan during the Kamakura period, who held the real power instead of shogun.

67 J. Tubielewicz, HistoriaJaponii, op. cit., p. 169. 94

o f K y u sh u . A n o th e r p ro v id e n tia l re g e n t - k a m p a k u a c tin g b o th a s a s h o g u n (a lth o u g h o ffic ia lly h e n e v e r w a s ) w a s T o y o to m i H id e y o sh i. T h a t R e g e n t b e g a n h is c a re e r n o t a s a s a m u ra i, b u t as a y o u n g m a n c o m in g fro m a p e a s ­ a n t fa m ily w h o h a s c o m e a lo n g w a y fro m w a lk in g w a r r io r c a re e r a s h ig a ru u n til fin a lly to a p o s itio n o f k a m p a k u . A n d m o r e im p o rta n tly , h e is o n e o f th e th re e p e rs o n s th a t a re a s s ig n e d to u n ific a tio n o f J a p a n 68. C h a ra c te ris ­ tic fo r th e s a m u ra i v irtu e s , fo r w h ic h b e lo n g e d lo y a lty a n d re s p o n sib ility , w e re fo r a ll J a p a n e s e , th e m o s t im p o rta n t fe a tu re s in th e F a r E a s t c u ltu re o f h o n o r. T h e e v id e n c e o f th is m a y b e le tte r H id e y o s h i’eg o , th e c o m m a n d e r o f p a r t o f s u b o rd in a te p ro te c tio n to k a m p a k u H id e ts u g u a rm y c h ie f, w h o is h is n e p h e w . A f te r th e d e fe a t a t th e B a ttle o f N a g a k u te , H id e ts u g u liv e d to see th e v e ry h a rs h c ritic is m fro m h is u n c le . T h is o c c u rr e d in 1584, a n d H id e o s h i w ro te : “ W ith th e s e d a y s, b lu s te rin g th a t y o u ’re th e n e p h e w o f H id e y o s h i’eg o , b e h a v e d to w a rd s p e o p le in a n u n w o rth y m a n n e r. T h is is u n a c c e p ta b le . I t is im p o rta n t th a t y o u r e m e m b e r fo r th e fu tu re th a t w e a ll r e s p e c t y o u , k n o w in g th a t y o u are m y n e p h e w . I c o u ld n o t sta n d it a n y m o re a n d I w a n te d to b e lie v e y o u to b e d e a d , b u t in m y h e a r t sw e lle d m ercy , so th a t I w rite th is letter. I f y o u c h a n g e y o u r a ttitu d e , so th a t o th e r p e o p le c a n c a ll y o u a m a tu re m a n th e n a n d I w ill b e m o re fa v o ra b le fo r y o u . Y o u h a v e a s s ig n e d J o z a e m o n a a n d K in o s h ita K in o s h ita T ag ey u . A lth o u g h y o u s h o u ld fe e l a s h a m e d th a t y o u k ille d th e m . D o n o t s h o w it [p ro p e rly ] (...) i f y o u im p ro v e y o u r p o s tu re , y o u w ill b e a b le to o n e d a y b e v ic e g e re n t a n y p ro v in c e . M in d le s s b u m p k in as y o u a re n o w , th o u g h , a n d e s c a p e d w ith h is life , is fo r m e a s m y n e p h e w s ta in o n th e h o n o r. I sh o u ld c u t y o u . B y n a tu re , I d o n o t lik e [h o w e v e r] to k ill p e o p le ” 69.Y ou c a n see a t a g la n c e th a t H id e y o s h i’e m u , th e s tra n g e r w a s n e p o tis m , y o u m u s t a d d o n e th in g , b e c a u s e e v e n a fu lle r e x p la n a tio n o f th e situ a tio n a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e sp e c ific e th o s o f th e sa m u ra i. S u b je c te d to m e r c ile s s a n d le g itim a te c riti­ c is m , n e p h e w k a m p a k u - H id e ts u g u , h e w a s a y o u n g le a d e r a n d w a rrio r, 68 Zob. J. Mendyk, Wielcy wojownicy Japonii: Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537-1598), TRIO, Warszawa 2009.

69 T. Kuwata, Taiko-no Tegami, Tokio 1959, s. 88-89, after: J. Mendyk, op. cit., p. 49.

b e c a u s e a t th e tim e o f th e d is a s te r s u ffe re d b y h im w a s o n ly 16 y e a rs old. M e n in th is a g e th o u g h t a t th e tim e as fu ll w a rrio rs . A n d th e y o u n g sa m u ra i to o k u p th e re s p o n s ib ility o f th is scale.

A s p re v io u s ly m e n tio n e d , th e m ilita r y tr a in in g w a s a im e d to w a rd s to ta l c o n tro l o v e r th e b o d y a n d a rm s se rv in g a s a to o l to fight. I t s h o u ld first o f a ll p a y a tte n tio n to w h y a n d W h a t w a s th e s ig n ific a n c e o f tr a in in g in th e u s e o f th e b o d y w ith o u t th e u s e o f a d d itio n a l w e a p o n s. O f c o u rs e , d o m i­ n a te h e re , th e c o n c e p t o f s im u lta n e ity o f b o d y a n d m in d , in o th e r w o rd s - th e m in d a n d w e a p o n s. T h is w e a p o n c o u ld b e j u s t th e h u m a n b o d y o r p e rs o n h a v in g th e e q u ip m e n t, s u c h as a sw o rd . I t is p re c is e ly b e c a u s e th e re w a s th is u n ity o f m in d a n d b o d y o r m in d a n d a rm s, th e y b e g a n to s a y th a t th e s w o rd is th e so u l o f th e sa m u ra i. A p ie c e itse lf, e v e n th e m o s t p e rf e c t o f ste e l, th e re a p p e a rs to b e j u s t as s e rio u s fo r k ra to fa n ii fe tis h 70. T h e s w o rd in th is c a s e is a n o b je c t w h ic h a llo w s th e o c c u rre n c e o f so -c a lle d . s in g le ­ p o in te d m e d ita tio n (in th is c a s e it i s j u s t “m e d ita tio n in m o tio n ” ). T h e h u ­ m a n m in d “ fills” (p a s se s) w e a p o n th a t it u s e s m a n (re g a rd le s s o f w h e th e r th e w e a p o n is th e sa m e b o d y , o r w h e th e r th e re is a ls o a w e a p o n s u c h as a sw o rd ). In th is c a se , th e m e ta p h o r b e in g m e n ta l s h o rtc u t “th e s w o rd is th e s o u l o f th e s a m u ra i” is a tr u e s ta te m e n t71. A s fo r p ra c tic a l re a s o n s d e a lin g w ith p re c io u s h u m a n b o d y w e a p o n s as su c h , n e e d to b e clarified .

T h e first re a s o n w a s th a t th e s a m u ra i d id n o t a lw a y s u s e th e w e a ­ p o n , u s in g it in re la tio n to th e lo w e r le v e ls o f s o c ie ty to d e fe n d o n e ’s ho n o r. A ls o o n th e b a ttle fie ld c o u ld b e th a t b u s h i lo s t h is w e a p o n - th e n its s u r­ v iv a l a n d p re s e rv a tio n o f h o n o r d e c id e d h is tr a in in g in th e fie ld o f c o m b a t. In a d d itio n , th e u s e o f o n e ’s o w n b o d y w a s u s e d fo r se lf-d e fe n s e a n d to p r o te c t in th e s e rv ic e o f th e d a im y o (fe u d a l p rin c e ).

T h e p la c e s o f th e p a la c e a n d d e fe n s e h a s a lw a y s b e e n a re le v a n t e ti­ q u e tte ta k in g in to a c c o u n t th e ru lin g hierarch y . In c a se o f e x c e e d in g etiq u ette 70 kratofania (Gr. kratós - strength, power, phainein - presenting! - term used to describe the phenomenon o f manifestation to the world as a sacred power, a form o f hierophany; term popularized by M. Eliade. Comp. Eliade M., Sacrum iprofanum, Wydawnictwo KR, Warszawa 1999, p. 5.

71 Comp. Leeuw (van der) G., Fenomenologia religii, Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa 1978. 96

b y senior, sh o u ld re c o g n iz e a g g re s siv e o r b e h a v in g in a p p ro p ria te ly p erso n . I f a n y o n e c ro s se d th e ru le s o f c o n d u c t b o d y g u a rd h a d to sto p a n d in c a p a c i­ ta te ro w d y a n d h o ld o n to e x p la in th e c a u se s o f o ffe n d in g b eh av io r.

O n e sh o u ld k n o w th a t a m o n g th e g u e s ts w e re a ls o h ig h ly b o rn (e lite ), so sh o u ld tr e a t th e m so th a t, o v e rp o w e rin g , d o n o t h u r t th e m , a n d d o n o t e x c e e d th e lim it o f se rio u s o ffe n d in g d ig n ity .

A n o th e r o b v io u s r e a s o n is th a t a s s o o n a s w e a re s u r p r is e d b y a n a tta c k e r, th e n y o u d o n o t a lw a y s j u s t h a v e a w e a p o n , w e c a n a ls o fin d th e m s e lv e s in th e s tru g g le in a d if fic u lt s itu a tio n a n d th e s u d d e n lo s s p r e v io u s ly o w n e d w e a p o n s . In s u c h a n e v e n tu a lity s h o u ld a ls o tr y to b e w e ll p re p a r e d .

A ll th is is a lw a y s th e c a se s a m u ra i h e lp s e x e rc is e s re s u ltin g in th e u n ity o f b o d y a n d m in d - v e rifia b le a n d w e ll- tra in e d a n d y e t h a v in g s u p ­ p o r t in th e fo rm o f n u m e r o u s re fe re n c e s to th e g u id a n c e c o n ta in e d in th e ru le s o f t h e C o d e o f B u s h i d o

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