New data on pre-Eocene karst in the Tatra Moun tains, Cen tral Carpathians, Po land
Renata JACH1, Michał GRADZIŃSKI1, * and Hel ena HERCMAN2
1 Jagiellonian Uni ver sity, In sti tute of Geo log i cal Sci ences, Oleandry 2a, 30-063 Kraków, Po land
2 Pol ish Acad emy of Sci ences, In sti tute of Geo log i cal Sci ences, Twarda 51/55, 00-818 Warszawa, Po land
Jach, R., Gradziński, M., Hercman, H., 2016. New data on pre-Eocene karst in the Tatra Moun tains, Cen tral Carpathians, Po land. Geo log i cal Quar terly, 60 (2): 291–300, doi: 10.7306/gq.1281
Sparry lime stone, ferruginous muddy lime stone and lime stone brec cia have been found in the West ern Tatra Mts. They oc - cur within Ju ras sic rocks of the Choč Nappe just be low red con glom er ates of prob a ble Eocene age. The de pos its found bear strong re sem blance to the infill of sub ter ra nean karst forms. They dif fer sig nif i cantly from Qua ter nary karst de pos its of the Tatra Mts. The d18O val ues of spelean car bon ates sug gest crystallisation at rel a tively high tem per a tures (over 20°C) whereas their rel a tively neg a tive d13C val ues im ply the pres ence of soil-de rived CO2 linked with veg e ta tion dom i nated by C3 path way plants. The karst forms and their infill were formed be fore the Eocene trans gres sion, which shows un equiv o cally that the Tatra Mts. were sub jected to karstification at that time.
Key words: cave de pos its, speleothems, weath er ing, Paleogene.
INTRODUCTION
Sev eral pe ri ods of non-de po si tion in subaerial con di tions oc curred in the geo log i cal his tory of the Tatra Mts. Bear ing in mind that the area is com posed pre dom i nantly of car bon ate rocks, one can ex pect not only weath er ing, but also the de vel - op ment of karst phe nom ena dur ing these pe ri ods. At least four phases of karstification have been rec og nized in the Tatra Mts.
– namely: Tri as sic (Anisian, and Ladinian/Carnian), Early Cre - ta ceous (Aptian/Albian), mid-Cre ta ceous to Eocene, and post-Eocene (Głazek, 1989; Gradziński et al., 2009 and ref er - ences therein). The karstification be tween the mid-Cre ta ceous and Eocene is named pre-Eocene here af ter in this pa per.
This pre-Eocene karstification was pri mar ily pos tu lated by Kuźniar (1913), who also com pared red-stained rock oc cur ring at the base of the Eocene transgressive se quence to con ti nen - tal “siderolitique for ma tions” known from Swit zer land. Wy - czół kowski (1956) as so ci ated Eocene red con glom er ate to be con ti nen tal in or i gin. Later, this view was ques tioned by Ro - niewicz (1969), who re garded red con glom er ate as a trans - gressive ma rine de posit and con sid ered its colouration as re - sult ing from of the oc cur rence of red-stained lime stone in the base ment. Con com i tantly, Roniewicz (1969) noted that Eocene red con glom er ate in the area of Hruby Regiel was laid dawn on an un even, karstified sur face of the old est rocks pres ent and
that the con glom er ates in ques tion are lo cally un der lain by brec cias with a red-stained ma trix. He no ticed that the con tact be tween brec cia and over ly ing red con glom er ate is grad ual.
The sug ges tion of the pres ence of a karstified sur face be low Eocene red con glom er ates was also made by Passendorfer (1978: p. 207). Uchman (1997, 2014) de scribed the oc cur rence of brec cia with a red-stained ma trix within Ju ras sic rocks of the Choč Nappe which di rectly un der lie the red con glom er ates.
Głazek (1989, 2000, 2004) sum ma rized pre vi ous opin ion about the geo log i cal his tory of the Tatra Mts. be tween nappe thrust ing and the Eocene trans gres sion and as cribed a karst or i gin to the brec cias in ques tion. More over, he pos tu lated the pres ence of an ex ten sive polje in the area of the pres ent Hruby Regiel be - fore the Eocene trans gres sion. Gradziński et al. (2006) pro - vided in di rect proof of pre-Eocene karstification. They sug - gested that Me so zoic rocks in the Tatra Mts. must have been karstified be fore the Eocene trans gres sion, based on the oc cur - rence of cal car e ous tufa, en com pass ing cal cite-en crusted fresh wa ter al gae, within Eocene con glom er ate in the Sucha Woda Val ley. Find ings of speleothem clasts in Eocene con - glom er ates near the vil lage of Húty (west ern part of the Tatra Mts.) men tioned by Gross et al. (1993: p. 70) also im plies the ex is tence of pre-Eocene karst there. Al though many sug ge s - tions as sum ma rized above have been put for ward, no un equiv - o cal proof on pre-Eocene karstification of the Tatra Mts. has been pro vided so far.
Con versely, there ex ist sev eral pa pers de scrib ing or men - tion ing pre-Eocene karst forms and karst de pos its from other moun tain mas sifs of the Cen tral Carpathians. Some an a logues to that in the Tatra Mts. in cludes a karst form filled with baux ite at Mojtín (Strážovské vrchy, Slovakia; Číčel, 1958; Andrusov, 1965: pp. 228, 229, 232). The baux ite is hy poth e sized to be Senonian in age (Aubrecht, 2015). Other karst lo cal i ties of sim i -
* Corresponding author, e-mail: michal.gradzinski@uj.edu.pl Received: October 23, 2015; accepted: January 7, 2016; first published online: February 29, 2016
lar age also filled with baux ite were rec og nized in the Lit tle Carpathians (Male Karpaty; Činčura, 1998b). Some karst forms orig i nated and filled with in ter nal de pos its be fore the Eocene trans gres sion have been noted from var i ous mas sifs of the Cen tral Carpathians (Bosák et al., 1989; Činčura and Köhler, 1995; Činčura, 1998a; Novotný and Tulis, 2002; Osborne, 2007). Such forms must also have been de stroyed dur ing the Eocene trans gres sion since rare spelothem clasts have been found within Eocene ma rine con glom er ates (Gross et al., 1993:
p. 70; Starek et al., 2012). The oc cur rence of 13 lay ers of enig - matic Lower Eocene fresh wa ter lime stones known as the
“Malenica lime stone” or “Malenica onyxite” and in ter preted as de pos ited in a flu vial re gime (Salaj, 1991, 1993, 2001, 2002) also sug gest karstification of older car bon ate rocks at that time.
The pre cise age of karstification is dif fi cult to as sess. It post - dates the thrust ing of the Cen tral Carpathian nappes and pre - dates the Eocene trans gres sion. In some ar eas it pre dates the de po si tion of the so-called Gosau beds of Late Cre ta ceous age, whereas in oth ers it is as cribed to the Paleogene (Bosák et al., 1989).
This pa per fo cuses on pre-Eocene karst in the Tatra Moun - tains. The main aim is to pro vide un am big u ous ev i dence that the area in ques tion was karstified be fore the Eocene trans - gres sion. The pa per is based on the spec i mens found in the course of a field study car ried out in the area where Eocene red con glom er ate di rectly over lies Me so zoic car bon ate of the Choč Nappe. The area is nor mally de void of nat u ral ex po sures, be ing man tled with a rel a tively thick soil cover and densely veg e tated.
The field study was pos si ble due to an ex tremely strong wind that in De cem ber 2013 dev as tated the for est and cleared the area. The wind fall formed many pits, where rock de bris ap pears from be low the soil cover (Fig. 1A). It cre ated a unique op por tu - nity to seek traces of pre-Eocene karst de pos its.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Mid dle–Up per Eocene de pos its crop out along the north ern mar gin of the Tatra Mts. (Fig. 2; Roniewicz, 1969). These de - pos its dis cor dantly cov ered var i ous Me so zoic sed i men tary rocks that com posed sev eral nappes of the Tatra Mts. The nappes were thrusted north ward dur ing the mid-Cre ta ceous.
The Eocene se quence re cords pro gres sive deep en ing of the depositional set ting (Roniewicz, 1969; Kulka, 1985; Olszewska
and Wieczorek, 1998; Bartholdy et al., 1999). The se quence com mences with con glom er ates com posed of Me so zoic bed - rock clasts (Fig. 2), over lain by lit to ral extraclastic packstones which grade up the sec tion into var i ous types of lime stone com - monly in clud ing large ben thic foraminifers (Roniewicz, 1969;
Machaniec et al., 2011; Jach et al., 2012; Jach and Machaniec, 2014). Con glom er ates and marls oc cur subordinately (Alexan - drowicz and Geroch, 1963; Olszewska and Wieczorek, 1998).
The whole se quence rep re sents the Bartonian–Pria bonian.
How ever, the basal con glom er ates are de void of fos sils, and so their age is only hy poth e sized as Early Bartonian based on their po si tion in the se quence. The Eocene car bon ates are suc - ceeded by a suc ces sion about 2.5 km thick of Oligocene turbiditic de pos its (Radomski, 1958; Sotak et al., 2001). In the Mio cene the Tatra Mts. were up lifted along a prom i nent boun d - ary fault to the north.
The Me so zoic rocks in the area stud ied are mainly com - posed of Lower Ju ras sic car bon ate and si li ceous rocks of the Choč Nappe (Bac-Moszaszwili et al., 1979). They rep re sent sev eral fa cies (Uchman, 1994, 1997, 2014) in clud ing peloidal calcarenites (Up per Sinemurian), crinoidal-bioclastic calca re - nites (Up per Sinemurian–Up per Pliensbachian), crinoidal calca renites (Pliensbachian) and spiculites (Pliensbachian).
Some car bon ates, and more com monly the spiculites, are si lici - fied. These rocks rep re sent the Miętusia For ma tion (Lefeld et al., 1985) and form two thrust-sheets: the Brama Kantaka thrust-sheet and the Kończysta Turnia thrust-sheet (Kotański, 1965; Grabowski, 1967). They over lie Lower Cre ta ceous marls of the Krížna Nappe.
The Me so zoic rocks are di rectly over lain by red con glom er - ate. Its thick ness is es ti mated to 50 m. It oc curs ex clu sively at the foot of the West ern Tatra Mts., namely be tween the Mała Łąka Val ley (to the east) and the Lejowa Val ley (to the west).
This de posit is poorly ex posed and, hence, it is some what enig - matic in terms of its char ac ter is tics and or i gin. The ex plor atory ob ser va tions car ried out in the course of this study show the pres ence of cross-bed ded sand stones and dis tinc tively graded beds within the red con glom er ate (Fig. 1B).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The de tailed field study along the con tact zone be tween the red con glom er ates and the base ment Me so zoic car bon ates
292 Renata Jach, Michał Gradziński and Helena Hercman
Fig. 1A – west ern slope of the Kościeliska Val ley af ter a strong wind in De cem ber 2013; wind fall with nu mer ous wind fall tree pits is vis i ble; B – sand stone lay ers and graded con glom er ates within red con glom er ate suc ces sion
was un der taken with spe cial con sid er ation paid to wind fall tree pits. Sam ples of brec cia, red-stained car bon ate rock and ce - ment vis i ble with the na ked eye were col lected. The in ter nal struc tures of the sam ples were ob served in pol ished sec tions.
The GSA Color Chart (Goddard et al., 1970) was used to de ter - mine lithotype col our. The study was ex tended by ob ser va tion of thin sec tions un der a stan dard petrographic op ti cal mi cro - scope and un der a field emis sion SEM Hitachi S-4700, equipped with a NORAN Van tage en ergy dispersive spec trom - e ter (EDS).
For mea sure ments of sta ble car bon and ox y gen iso tope ra - tios of the car bon ates, sam ples were taken with a Dremel drill - ing ma chine. The sta ble iso tope com po si tion was ana lysed at the War saw Iso tope Lab o ra tory for Dat ing and En vi ron ment Stud ies of the Pol ish Acad emy of Sci ences. The sam ples were dis solved in 100% phos pho ric acid at 70°C, us ing a Kiel IV on - line car bon ate prep a ra tion de vice, con nected to a Thermo -
-Finnigan Delta Plus mass spec trom e ter. The qual ity of the anal y sis was con trolled by NBS-19 in ter na tional stan dard mea - sure ments. The d13C and d18O val ues are given rel a tive to the V-PDB stan dard. An a lyt i cal reproducibility was ver i fied on the ba sis of the re peat abil ity of the NBS-19 re sults, with an ob - served de vi a tion of <0.07‰ for d13C and <0.12‰ for d18O mea - sure ments.
Chem i cal sep a ra tion of U and Th from the car bon ate ma trix was car ried out in the In sti tute of Geo log i cal Sci ence, Pol ish Acad emy of Sci ences, War saw, Po land. Ura nium and tho rium were sep a rated from the car bon ate ma trix us ing TRU-Spec resin. Prior to any chem i cal treat ment, a mix ture of
229Th-233U-236U was added as a spike. Or ganic mat ter was re - moved from sam ple by ig ni tion in an oven. The spiked sam ple was dis solved in con cen trated ni tric acid. Any in sol u ble res i due was re moved by cen tri fug ing. A sam ple was loaded into the col - umns with the TRU-resin in 1M ni tric acid. Car bon ate ma trix Fig. 2. Lo ca tion of the sites stud ied; geo log i cal map in A af ter Bac-Moszaszwili et al. (1979),
in B af ter Sokołowski (1959); mod i fied
was re moved with acid then U and Th were washed from the col umns with mix tures of 0.1 M HNO3 + 0.2 M HF. Af ter evap o - ra tion, the sam ple was dis solved in 10% ni tric acid. Mea sure - ments were per formed with a dou ble-fo cus ing sec tor-field ICP mass an a lyzer (El e ment 2, Thermo-Finngan MAT in In sti tute of Ge ol ogy, Czech Acad emy of Sci ence, Prague, Czech Re pub - lic). The in stru ment was op er ated at a low mass res o lu tion (m/Dm ³ 300). A dou ble pass spray cham ber with tef lon nebulizer was used as the sam ple-in tro duc tion sys tem.
RESULTS
PETROGRAPHY OF DEPOSITS
Three lithotypes have been dis tin guished: (i) sparry lime - stone, (ii) ferruginous muddy lime stone, and (iii) lime stone brec - cia. They have been found in three lo cal i ties, two at Kantaka Gate and one in Staników Gully. Ta ble 1 shows the pre cise lo - ca tion of each lo cal ity and the lithotypes found there (see also Figs. 1 and 2). All of them oc cur in re cent scree ex posed in fallen tree pits. The di rect con tact with base ment rock is in vis i - ble or only vis i ble in part. All the lo cal i ties are on lime stones of the Choč Nappe but very close to the lower bound ary of the over ly ing Eocene de pos its. The dis tance from the con tact can be es ti mated as <10 m at each lo cal ity.
Sparry lime stone. The thick ness of sparry lime stone var - ies be tween a few milli metres and 12 cm (Fig. 3A–C). The sam - ples show lay er ing vis i ble with the na ked eye. The dom i nant lay ers are dark yel low ish brown (10 YR 4/2). They al ter nate with lay ers that are grey ish or ange in col our (10 YR 7/4). The bound - aries be tween lay ers are clearly vis i ble. The lay ers are up to 4 mm in thick ness. Gen er ally, their shape is slightly curved; only in some zones do they form dis tinct syn- and antiforms. Growth cav i ties may have formed be tween neigh bour ing antiforms.
Sparry lime stones are com posed mainly of elon gated crys - tals of co lum nar shape the length: width ra tio of which does not ex ceed 6:1 (Fig. 4A). The crys tal length is >2 mm whereas their max i mal width ex ceeds 0.5 mm. These crys tals form co lum nar proper fab rics (sensu Frisia and Borsato, 2010) or co lum nar com pact fab rics (sensu Frisia, 2015). More elon gated crys tals with length:width ra tios ex ceed ing 6:1 oc cur subordinately (Fig.
4B). They cor re spond to elon gated co lum nar fab ric (sensu Frisia and Borsato, 2010; Frisia, 2015). Microcrystalline cal cite is very rare. It builds dis tinc tive laminae up to 0.4 mm in thick - ness, en riched in non-car bon ate grains (e.g., quartz, Fig. 4C).
The co lum nar crys tals are densely packed; there is a lack of intercrystalline po ros ity. Co lum nar cal cite crys tals de vel oped ac cord ing to com pet i tive growth (Fig. 4A; sensu González et al., 1992) or an im pinge ment crystallisation pat tern (sensu Dick son, 1993). The width of crys tals in creases up wards from
the nu cle ation sur face, whereas their op tic ori en ta tion be comes more uni form. The crys tals over grow ing monocrystalline frag - ments of crinoidal lime stone dis play spe cific op tic ar range - ments. They de rive op tic ori en ta tion from their base ment, hence they grew syntaxially.
Ferruginous muddy lime stone. Ferruginous muddy lime - stone is pale red (5 R 6/2), mod er ate red dish or ange (10 R 6/6) to dark red dish brown (10 R 3/4). It forms veinlets pen e trat ing down the Ju ras sic base ment rocks, oc curs as ma trix in brec cia which is com posed of Ju ras sic rock frag ments or fills growth cav i ties within sparry lime stone (Fig. 3D). Such brec cias were noted at lo cal ity A. Sim i lar brec cias were ear lier men tioned from rock crags lo cated in the Staników Gully (Uchman, 1997) and at the Kantaka Gate in the Kościeliska Val ley (Głazek, 2000). The lime stone host rock along a con tact with a veinlet is rounded, which sug gests dis so lu tion prior to fill ing of a veinlet.
The ferruginous muddy lime stone is gen er ally poorly ce - mented. It is ex cep tion ally well-ce mented only when it co-oc - curs with sparry lime stone or brec cia (Figs. 3A and 4C, D).
Ferruginous muddy lime stone is com posed of extraclasts de rived from older car bon ate rocks. Thus, they rep re sent calclithite rock. Sin gle crys tals, be ing dis in te grated parts of crinoidal lime stone, are most com mon. The extraclasts are densely packed, with com mon grain-to-grain con tacts; they form a grain-sup ported tex ture. The ce ment com pletely fills spaces be tween the extraclasts. The ce ment has a dark red - dish, ho mo ge neous ap pear ance in trans mit ted light; in some places it is al most opaque (Fig. 4D). Ob ser va tion un der SEM and EDS anal y ses re veals the pres ence of fine alu mi no sili cate par ti cles and microcrystalline car bon ate – most prob a bly cal cite ce ment. Some zones are en riched with iron ox ide or iron hy - drox ide ce ment (up to 46 wt.% of Fe2O3).
Brec cia. Brec cia has been found at all three sites. It com - prises clasts with a size range mainly of 1–6 cm (Fig. 3B, E, F).
Clasts are an gu lar to subangular in shape, mod er ate brown to grey in col our with white coarsely crys tal line veinlets. They con - sist of a va ri ety of car bon ate and si li ceous rock types. Crinoidal, crinoidal-bioclastic, bioclastic packstone and grainstone clasts are most com mon. Clasts of microsparite lime stone and spiculite oc cur as well. Some of these, mainly the spiculites, are si lici fied. All these clasts were de rived from base ment rocks of the Choč Nappe (see Uchman, 2014).
The brec cia con tains red ma trix with a com po si tion sim i lar to that of the ferruginous muddy lime stone. Some zones of brec cia are ce mented with sparry ce ment anal o gous to the sparry lime stone de scribed above.
ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION
Each lithotype dis tin guished has its own char ac ter is tic com - po si tion of sta ble car bon and ox y gen iso topes (Fig. 5 and Ta ble 2). The dif fer ences are more eas ily vis i ble as re gards the sta ble car bon iso topes. Sparry lime stone and sparry ce ment of lime - stone brec cia have the most neg a tive val ues of d13C rang ing from –10.1 to –6.31‰. Ferruginous muddy lime stone dis plays more pos i tive val ues of d13C – be tween –3.40 and –0.64‰. The sta ble car bon iso tope com po si tion of the Me so zoic rock clasts falls within a broad range typ i cal of ma rine lime stones. Partly si - lici fied rock serves as the ex cep tion; val ues of its d13C are more neg a tive.
Re sults of ura nium iso tope dat ing are given in Ta ble 3. Age es ti ma tion is im pos si ble since the 230Th/234U ac tiv ity ra tio is over 1 (see Ivanovich and Harmon, 1992). This sug gests open sys - tem be hav iour. Such a ra tio does not re sult from Th ex cess since Th is gen er ally sta ble and re mains bounded. Rather, it is
294 Renata Jach, Michał Gradziński and Helena Hercman
T a b l e 1 Lo ca tion of the de pos its stud ied
Lo ca tion Co or di nates Lithotypes Kościeliska Val ley,
Kantaka Gate
49°16’17" N 19°52’11" E
sparry lime stone ferruginous muddy lime stone Kościeliska Val ley,
Kantaka Gate
49°16’17" N 19°52’12" E
sparry lime stone brec cia Staników Gully 49°16’18" N
19°52’18" E
sparry lime stone brec cia
caused by U mi gra tion. The con tent of 232Th, which is an in di ca - tor of de tri tal Th, is at the level of 68 ppb and the 230Th/232Th ac - tiv ity ra tio is >20 which is ac cepted as a “thresh old value” (see Schwarcz and Latham, 1989).
DISCUSSION
ORIGIN OF DEPOSITS FOUND
All the de pos its found bear the strong re sem blance to infills of karst forms. What they have in com mon is:
– tex tures,
– sta ble iso to pic com po si tion (both car bon and ox y gen).
Sparry lime stone and sparry ce ments in the brec cia show all the char ac ter is tic fea tures of spelean cal cite. Lam i na tion with syn- and antiforms re flects the mor phol ogy of a flowstone with ver ti cal ribs. The empty spaces be tween neigh bour ing ribs were partly filled with ferruginous muddy lime stone (Fig. 3A).
The flowstones dis cussed are com posed pre dom i nantly of
sparite cal cite crys tals. The spa tial or ga ni za tion of the crys tals sug gests that sparry lime stone grew on a cave wall as a flowstone cover whereas the mi cro scopic fea tures im ply that it was fed with a wa ter film flow ing down the cave wall. Co lum nar fab ric is typ i cal of a speleothem grow ing from mod er ately to highly su per sat u rated so lu tions (cf. González et al., 1992;
Gradziński et al., 1997; Frisia and Borsato, 2010; Frisia, 2015).
Some elon gated crys tals prob a bly grew dur ing ep i sodes of higher supersaturation (cf. Given and Wilkinson, 1985). The pres ence of the nu cle ation sur faces marked with im pinge ment growth of a new gen er a tion of crys tals shows, on the one hand, in ter rup tions in the crystallisation of the speleothems stud ied and, on the other hand, the lack of strong diagenetic recrystallisation. The scar city of de tri tal com po nents, as shown by mi cro scopic ob ser va tions and sup ported ad di tion ally by the
230Th/232Th ra tio, sug gests that the wa ter sup ply ing the ions was rel a tively clean.
Thus, all the data col lec tively in di cate that the sparry lime - stone rep re sents frag ments of flowstones which grew within caves. Later, dur ing de struc tion of the caves, the flowstones were ex posed at the sur face and frag mented. Sim i larly, the Fig. 3. Mac ro scopic view of lithotypes found
A–C – sparry lime stone, note growth cav ity filled with ferruginous muddy lime stone in B, sparry lime stone in B is de vel oped on a brec cia com posed of crushed coarse crys tal line veinlets, ferruginous muddy lime stone acts as a ma trix; D – ferruginous muddy lime stone which forms a veinlet within Ju ras sic bed rock lime stone; E, F – brec cia com posed of clasts of Ju ras sic rocks and ferruginous muddy lime stone ce mented with sparry lime stone
296 Renata Jach, Michał Gradziński and Helena Hercman
Fig. 4. Mi cro scopic fea tures of the lithotypes found
A – co lum nar cal cite grow ing on Ju ras sic lime stone, note im pinge ment crys tal li sa tion pat tern, sparry lime stone; B – highly elon gated crys tals, sparry lime stone; C – lamina com posed of microcrystalline cal cite with ad mix tures of de tri tal non-car bon ate com po nents (e.g., quartz); D – ferruginous muddy lime stone com posed of crys tal line clasts of Ju ras sic crinoidal lime stone ce mented with iron com pounds
Fig. 5. Iso to pic com po si tion of the de pos its stud ied
Data on iso to pic com po si tion of Ho lo cene and Pleis to cene fresh wa ter car bon ate af ter Gradziński et al. (2001, 2009, 2013), Hun gar ian Eocene speleothems af ter Győri et al. (2014), Malenica lime stone af ter Repčok and Salaj (1998), range of d13C of ma rine lime stones af ter Fairchild and Baker (2012)
brec cia also rep re sents karst de pos its. It orig i nated within caves, which is shown by the pres ence of clasts of ex clu sively lo cal rocks and, above all, by ce men ta tion of these clasts by spelean cal cite. The ferruginous muddy lime stone is a de posit com posed of extraclasts de rived from lo cal rocks mixed with a re sid ual ma trix. The pre dom i nance of crinoidal lime stone frag - ments most prob a bly re sulted from spe cific granular dis in te gra - tion of this rock.
The sta ble iso to pic com po si tion of the sparry cal cite – that is flowstones and the ce ment of the brec cia – can shed some light on the con di tions of its growth. It is com monly ac cepted that the d18O of cal cite re flects the tem per a ture of crystallisation (O’Neil et al., 1969; see also Hoefs, 1997 and lit er a ture quoted therein).
How ever, this pa ram e ter also de pends strongly on the iso to pic com po si tion of the pa ren tal wa ter and on pos si ble ki netic ef - fects. Thus, it is im pos si ble to es ti mate the tem per a ture of crystallisation with out ad di tional data, or with out mak ing some ex tra as sump tions. As a re sult of this, cal cu la tion of tem per a - tures in high-res o lu tion cli mate re con struc tions based on Qua -
ter nary speleothems has been aban doned or de - mands ad di tional data (see Fairchild and Baker, 2012). How ever, such es ti ma tions have been com monly made in a study of other fresh wa ter car bon ates, namely palaeosols (e.g., Dworkin et al., 2005 and ref er ences therein), and also palaeokarst de pos its (e.g., Elliassen and Tal bot, 2005). The Hays and Grossmann’s (1991) equa - tion is rou tinely used. It is for mu lated as fol lows:
T = 13.3 ± 32.6 [–0.231 – 0.0631 (d18Omcl. + d18Osw.)]1/2, where mcl. and sw. de notes me te oric cal cites and sea wa ter re spec tively.
Ap ply ing this above equa tion, us ing the val - ues of d18O of the car bon ates stud ied and as - sum ing d18Osw. = 0‰ a tem per a ture range be - tween 23 and 28°C was ob tained, with a mean value of 26°C. Clearly, these re sults must be treated with great cau tion.
The val ues of d13C show that sparry lime stone was fed with wa ter charged with soil-de rived CO2
(Fairchild and Baker, 2012). The val ues of car - bon ates stud ied are lower than an a logue val ues of Ho lo cene and Pleis to cene fresh wa ter car bon - ates (mainly speleothems) from the Tatra Mts.
and their vi cin ity (Fig. 5). This sug gests a denser veg e ta tion cover dur ing the crystallisation of the de pos its stud ied than dur ing the Pleis to cene and Ho lo cene in the Tatra Mts. The rel a tively neg a tive val ues of d13C, rang ing be tween –9.62 and –6.31‰, im ply a dom i nance of C3 path way plants (see Dreybrodt, 1980; Baker et al., 1997). The ferruginous muddy lime stone yields d13C val ues higher than the flowstone and brec cia ce ment but lower than the Ju ras sic host lime stone. This re - sults from a mix ture of lime stone extraclasts, which are iso to pi cally heavier, and iso to pi cally light ce ments (see Woolhouse et al., 2009; Gra - dziński et al., 2014).
AGE OF KARSTIFICATION
Al though the pre cise spa tial re la tion ship be - tween the de pos its stud ied and the host Ju ras sic car bon ates is not known, the lo ca tion of the for mer just be low the red con glom er ate is sig nif i cant. This strongly sug gests that the de pos its in ques tion rep - re sent infills of pre-Eocene karst caves.
The pos si bil ity of a youn ger age can not be ruled out with out dis cus sion. The de pos its in the Kościeliska Val ley were found at ca. 55 and 70 m above the val ley bot tom (site A and B, re spec - tively). Es ti mat ing a rate of val ley in ci sion, one can ex pect rel a - tively young karst forms and their infills in such a set ting, no ta bly Mid dle Pleis to cene or youn ger. How ever, the li thol ogy of the de pos its stud ied dif fers mark edly from that of Qua ter nary cave de pos its in the Tatra Mts. There is a lack of red cave de pos its – clastic de pos its or red-stained speleothems in the Tatra Mts.
(Głazek and Grodzicki, 1996). Nei ther are the known cave de - pos its of this area ce mented with iron ox ide. Qua ter nary clastic de pos its con tain, in the sand frac tion, ma te rial de rived from crys tal line rocks of the Tatra Mts. core and tec tonic out li ers, no - ta bly quartz, feld spars and micas (Wójcik, 1966; Gradziński and Szulc, 2014). Such de tri tal com po nents oc cur also in Pleis to - cene speleothems there (Dziadzio et al., 1993). These have not been found in the sam ples stud ied, ex cept for quartz which is ex cep tion ally rare. This sug gests that the de pos its stud ied orig i - T a b l e 2
Sta ble iso to pic com po si tion of the de pos its stud ied
Sam ple
num ber d13C
[‰ V-PDB] d18O
[‰ V-PDB] Lithotype
BK 1e –4.31 –5.89 brec cia – clast of si lici fied spiculite BK 1a –6.39 –5.52 brec cia – clast of si lici fied spiculite BK 13b 1.04 –8.32 white veinlet within Ju ras sic lime stone BK 6c 1.68 –11.85 white veinlet within Ju ras sic lime stone BK 17b –0.90 –5.71 white veinlet within Ju ras sic lime stone BK 17c –1.19 –5.94 white veinlet within Ju ras sic lime stone
BK 6d –2.15 –4.38 ferruginous muddy lime stone
BK 7b –0.64 –1.87 ferruginous muddy lime stone
BK 1k –3.40 –5.47 ferruginous muddy lime stone
BK 12g –2.81 –5.28 ferruginous muddy lime stone
BK 7a 2.34 –1.12 brec cia – clast of base ment lime stone BK 17a 2.03 –3.62 brec cia – clast of base ment lime stone BK 13a 1.78 –1.63 brec cia – clast of base ment lime stone
BK 12d –7.04 –6.00 sparry lime stone
BK 6b –9.31 –6.80 sparry lime stone
BK 12f –7.05 –5.29 sparry lime stone
BK 12c –6.31 –5.83 sparry lime stone
BK 6a –9.29 –6.92 sparry lime stone
BK 12a –7.25 –6.28 sparry lime stone
Sz 1a –10.1 –6.85 sparry lime stone
Sz 1b –8.35 –6.22 sparry lime stone
BK 1h –7.69 –6.28 brec cia – sparry ce ment
BK 1d –8.38 –6.11 brec cia – sparry ce ment
BK 1i –9.62 –6.88 brec cia – sparry ce ment
BK 1b –8.99 –7.07 brec cia – sparry ce ment
BK 1f –7.45 –6.03 brec cia – sparry ce ment
BK 1g –8.08 –6.05 brec cia – sparry ce ment
T a b l e 3 Re sults of U-se ries dat ing
Sam ple Lab. No. U cont.
[ppm]
234U/238U 230Th/234U 230Th/232Th BK 12 58 0.0869 ± 0.003 1.099 ± 0.006 1.22 ± 0.01 47.5 ± 0.4
nated in dif fer ent con di tions than did the Qua ter nary cave de - pos its in the Tatra Mts. Con versely, the iron-rich ma te rial bears some af fin i ties to red re sid ual de pos its which are com mon in pre -Eocene karst in the Cen tral Carpathians (Činčura and Köhler, 1995 – “palaeo alpine” ac cord ing to their ter mi nol ogy).
The pre-Eocene age of the karst is ad di tion ally sup ported by other ev i dence, that is: (i) loss of ura nium from the sparry lime - stone, and (ii) the sta ble iso tope com po si tion of the de pos its stud ied, al though nei ther of these pro vides un ques tion able proof. The loss of ura nium means that the car bon ate sys tem was
“open”, which en abled the dif fu sion of ura nium. Such fac tors as time and tem per a ture stim u late greatly the dif fu sion of ura nium (van Calsteren and Thomas, 2006). Both fac tors were at work in the case of the pre-Eocene de pos its which ex pe ri enced an over - bur den of a few kilo metres of Eocene–Oligocene and ?Mio cene strata, which prob a bly co in cided with an in creased heat-flux (Środoń et al., 2006; Anczkiewicz et al., 2013).
The iso to pic com po si tion of the spelean cal cites stud ied, that is the sparry lime stone and the sparry ce ments of the brec - cia, dis plays con sid er able dif fer ences from those of Qua ter nary spelean cal cites of the Tatra Mts., as dis cussed above. Con - com i tantly, they share some sim i lar i ties with Eocene spelean cal cites from Hun gary (Győri et al., 2014). This sug gests sim i lar en vi ron men tal con di tions of their or i gin, namely cli mate and veg e ta tion cover. What is more, the above-cal cu lated tem per a - ture of crystallisation, which equals ca. 26°C, is very sim i lar to the tem per a ture pos tu lated for the Late Eocene in the Tatra Mts. on the ba sis of plant com mu ni ties. Worobiec et al. (2015) es ti mated this tem per a ture at over 20°C. The above val ues are in line with the sea sur face tem per a ture ex ceed ing 20°C cal cu - lated for Eocene num mu lit ic lime stone of the Cen tral Carpathians by Soták (2010) and tem per a tures of sed i men ta - tion of the Lower Eocene Malenica fresh wa ter lime stone (Strážovske Mts., Slovakia) pos tu lated to fall within a range of 23–27°C (Repčok and Salaj, 1998). The plant com mu nity de - scribed from the Tatra Eocene with rep re sen ta tives of Lauracae (e.g., Eotrigonobalanus urcinervis and Daphnogene sp.) as well as the palm Nypa burtini point to ev er green for ests of a warm and hu mid (an nual rain fall over 1.000 mm) cli mate (Głazek and Zastawniak, 1999; Worobiec et al., 2015 and ref er - ences therein; see also Zachos et al., 2001). Such a cli mate is es pe cially fa vour able for karst pro cesses and ef fi cient dis so lu - tion of car bon ate bed rock (Ford and Wil liams, 2007: p. 80–81).
The above con di tions are in line with the rel a tively light iso to pic com po si tion of car bon of the spelean cal cites stud ied. The views ex pressed above col lec tively lead to the state ment that the de pos its dis cussed are the infills of pre-Eocene karst forms.
Thus, they pro vide un equiv o cal proof that karst fea tures sculpted the Tatra Mts. be fore the Eocene trans gres sion.
The pre cise age of the de pos its and karst forms they filled is hard to es ti mate. They are cov ered with red con glom er ates.
How ever, bear ing in mind the un cer tain ties con cern ing the age of the red con glom er ates, the karst can be dated back even to
mid-Cre ta ceous (Głazek, 2000). A Cre ta ceous age seems to be less prob a ble be cause karstification could have started af ter the sig nif i cant ero sion of over rid den nappes, hence con sid er - ably af ter thrust ing of the nappes, which is dated to the mid-Cre - ta ceous (e.g., Passendorfer, 1978; Plašienka, 2008; Lefeld, 2009). The more prob a ble sce nario is that karstification im me - di ately pre ceded Eocene trans gres sion. It may have been as - so ci ated with cre ation of an ex ten sive polje hy poth e sized by Głazek (2000, 2004) on the ba sis of the oc cur rence and thick - ness dis tri bu tion of the red con glom er ates. It is note wor thy that the de pos its dis cussed were found within Ju ras sic rocks which bor dered the polje. Em ploy ing the re sults of re cent sedi men - tological and tec tonic anal y sis (Jach et al., 2012; Dąbro wska and Jurewicz, 2013, re spec tively) it can be pre sumed that the polje in ques tion was bound by an ac tive fault and that tec ton ics af fected its sub si dence. Such a phe nom e non re lates also to many re cently ex ist ing poljes (Gams, 2013). The sub si dence con tin ued dur ing the Mid dle and Late Eocene, and re sulted in de po si tion of the thick suc ces sion of de tri tal lime stone (Jach et al., 2012). None the less, some doubts as to the age of these karst forms and their infills still ex ist, es pe cially tak ing into ac - count the more com pli cated Cre ta ceous–Paleogene geo log i cal his tory of the Tatra Mts. pos tu lated by Birkenmajer (1999).
CONCLUSIONS
1. The de pos its stud ied – sparry lime stone, ferruginous muddy lime stone and brec cia – are the infills of sub ter ra nean karst forms. Sparry lime stone orig i nated as flowstone grow ing on a cave wall.
2. The d18O val ues of sparry lime stone and sparry ce ment of the brec cia sug gests their crys tal li sa tion in tem per a tures over 20°C. How ever, these re sults are based on sev eral as sump tions.
3. Karst forms were cre ated by wa ter charged with soil-de - rived CO2 con nected with veg e ta tion dom i nated prob a bly by C3 path way plants. This is in ferred from rel a tively neg a tive val ues of d13C of the spelean car bon ates.
4. The lo ca tion of the de pos its stud ied as well as their tex - tures and sta ble iso tope com po si tion col lec tively prove that they were formed be fore the Eocene trans gres sion. Thus, they dem - on strate un equiv o cally that the Tatra Mts. were sub jected to karstification at that time.
Ac knowl edge ments. Au thor i ties of the Tatra Na tional Park are kindly ac knowl edged for pro vid ing per mis sion for the field study. R. Gradziński helped in the field in the sum mer of 2014.
K. Gradzińska is thanked for her per se ver ance which en abled us to fin ish this pa per. The pa per has greatly bene fited from the con struc tive com ments of re view ers P. Bosák and J. Soták, as well as of the ed i tors T. Peryt and J. Zalasiewicz.
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300 Renata Jach, Michał Gradziński and Helena Hercman
