L a b . V . S c h e e p s b o u w k u n c i e
L
/ ^ i t i h i ^ - ^
T e c h n i s c h e H o g e s c h o o lD e l f t A R C H I E F
' 3 0 0 YEAR NORTH SEA'
CROSSING AND ENVIRONMENT
-SEAGOING
SYMPOSIUM
'Koningin Beatrix'
C
ROWN
L
INE
. o n i n g i r h
L / ^ toneel Z O N N E D E K O O cro Q O O f cPo O O f cPo=
QO ^-/ dansvloer ]opC^o^ao[ Oo O^O OX> <00<500C) I 0 ° 0 C > " 0 0 ° 0 O OOOanD o^o Q U D o, O O' O" — 1 — toiletten Z E E L A N D L O B B Y C D O D p oü Q
OO O "cPo
Q Q OO • i n z g o o I I/
L U X O R C I N E M A ^ 0 p l a a t s e n / \ I P A L A C E C I N E M A 1 50 plaatsen 1 H INaar trappenhuis & hutten.
liften n OD I C A P T A I N ' S C O R N E R L O U N G E L I N G E I (2> j S t -C O N F E R E N -C E R O O M Holland 2 (45 m') I C O N F E R E N C ; Holland tel > I C O N F E R E N C E I H ' ^ - R O O M F " ^ (; ::::::::lBritain2|>::;:ï • • . ^ ' C O N F E R E N C E R( L-, : • : < Britain 1..
I
toiletten-D E K 8COMPLETE PROGRAMME
March ] 4, 1989 17.00 h, reception offered by the City of Rotterdam in Museum Boymans-van Beuningen March 15. 1989 09.00 - 10.00 h 09.15 10.00 h 1 0 . 0 0 - 10.15 h 1 0 . 1 5 - 10.30h 10.30 - 11.00 h 11 00 - 11 3 0 h Seagoing Symposium
Registration in the Departure Lounge of Crown Line - Hook of Holland Coffee on board the "Koningin Beatrix"
Plenary Session - Executive lounge - deck 8 Welcome by Ir W.J. Wolff, on behalf of K.Lv.L and N.V.T.S. Opening by his Excellence Dr. Jan C.Terlouw,
Secrétaire-Oénéral de la Conférence Européenne des Ministres des Transports
Morning Session, Chairman : J.E. Sloggett,-Secretary of the Institute of Marine Enqinper^ Conf.Rm)m Britain 1+2 Lecture 1 Lecture 2 11.30 - 12.30 h 11.45h 12.30 - 14.00h
Apéritif during departure Departure Hook of Holland
Lunch - Rembrandt Restaurant deck 7
14 00 - 14.30h 1 4 . 3 0 - IS.OOh
Parallel afternoon sessions North Sea: link
between UK and Continent Chairman : Ir A.P.A.Jaeger President Klv I - Mar tec
Conf.Room Britain / Lecture A - 3
Lecture A - 4
North Sea: environment between UK and Continent Chairman : Prof. Ir H.Wiggerls President Klvl-Bouw en Waterb.
Conf.Room Britain 2 Lecture B - 3
Lecture B - 4
North Sea: ladies on board between UK and Continent Chairman : Mrs Ir M.H.Blom-Fuhri Snethlage; Raad Maatschappij Conf.Room Holland / Lecture C - 3 Lecture C - 4 15 00 - 15.30 h Tea Executive /ounge
Plenary session.
Chairman : Prof. Ir Sj. Hengst, President N.V.T S
15.30 - 16.00 h Lecture 5 Conf.Room Britain f * 2 Ship excursion C - 5
^'^n " ^ 4 ? !; "''o ^'^^^ <^Pf^'"^ ^rner 16.50 - 16.45 h Closing Ceremony by Marshall Meek CBE BSc on behalf of RINA and ImaRE
18,45h = Arrival Harwich (NL time) = 17,45 (UK time)
19.30 h - Harwich, Reception offered by The Institute of Marine Engineers 21.30 (UK time) Ultimate boarding time and departure for return to Holland
(ONLY FOR BASIC ARRANGEMENT) March 16, 1989
ORGANIZING INSTITUTES Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs
-Afdeling riaritieme Techniek Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs
-Afdeling Bouw- en Waterbouwkunde Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs
-Afdeling Milieutechniek
fjederlandse Vereniging van Technici op Scheepvaartgebied Royal Institution of Naval Architects
Institute of Marine Engineers
On 17 July 1988 It was three hundred y ^ r s ago that a British admiral, disguised as a sailor, delivered in the strictest secrecy a letter signed by seven prominent figures in Britain to Prince William 111 of Orange, Stadholder of the Republic of the United provinces to restore order in their sadly divided country.
Within four months William 111 completed the preparations for an expedition involving 250 transport vessels and 3 squadrons of warships, the largest invasion fleet up to then ever to be seen in Europe. On 15 November 1688 William 111 landed at Torbay. James 11, then head of State, fled to France and William 111 and his wife, Princess Mary Stuart, were crowned as King William Ul and Queen Mary 11 of England, Scotland and
Ireland: the' Glorious Revolution ' had talcen place.
In the context of this history the organizing committee wishes to commemorate this Glorious Revolution, which grew out of three hundred years of friendship between the Netherlands and the British people. Especially, in the field of the maritime technology we offer you a symposium on board a ferry between Holland and the United Kingdom to enlighten you:
'Three hundred years North Sea Crossing and Environment -The Past, Present and the Future*.
; O N I N K L I J K I N S T I T U U T V A N I N G E N I E U R S
Message Of Welcome.
The council members of K.l.v.l.-MarTec are very happy that their brainstorming on the 'William and Mary' issue has resulted in the organisation of this symposium.
K.l.v.l.-MarTec is the Marine TK;hnology branche of the Royal Institute of Engineers in the Netherlands and represents the majority of Dutch Maritime Engineers, graduated at the Delft Technical University.
Being in principle a learned society with members operating in an international environment, K.l.v.l.-MarTec puts besides the promotion and development of the marine technology a strong emphasize on the educational standards and international contacts.
Keeping in mind the economic unification of western Europe in 1992 the setting and classification of education levels will become more and more important. In this context the efforts of the WEMT (West European Marine Technolog/) counsel as a platform of the national organisations have our full support.
An international symposium like this gives the participants not only the opportunity to listen to the state of the art but also a chance to meet others and to exchange experiences and points of view related to other common topics.
It is therefore that a combined Anglo-Dutch conference is so strongly advocated by us.
We thank the organisers for their efforts to make this symposium a succes and wish the participants a fruitfull event.
Ir A.P.A. Jaeger
O p e n i n g a d d r e s s o f t h e C h a i r m a n o f t h e M a r i t i m e d i v i s i o n o f t h e R o y a l I n s t i t u t i o n o f E n g i n e e r s i n T h e N e t h e r l a n d s a t t h e r e c e p t i o n o f f e r e d b y t h e c i t y o f R o t t e r d a m o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e W i l l i a m a n d M a r y t r i c e n t e n n i a l s y m p o s i u m " 3 0 0 y e a r N o r t h S e a " - C r o s s i n g a n d E n v i r o n m e n t - . Mr A l d e r m a n o f t h e c i t y o f R o t t e r d a m M u n i c i p a l C o u n c i l , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e R o y a l I n s t i t u t i o n o f N a v a l A r c h i t e c t s , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e N e t h e r l a n d s S o c i e t y o f M a r i t i m e T e c h n o l o g i s t s , P a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e symposium. L a d i e s and g e n t l e m e n , I t i s my p r i v i l e g e a s c h a i r m a n o f K I V I - M a r t e c t o a d d r e s s m y s e l f t o you a t t h e eve o f t h e s e a g o i n g symposium t i t l e d
"300 y e a r N o r t h S e a " C r o s s i n g and E n v i r o n m e n t
-300 y e a r o f f r i e n d s h i p and a n i m o s i t y between t h e U n i t e d Kingdom and The N e t h e r l a n d s
Much more t h a n 3 00 y e a r o f m a r i t i m e t r a n s p o r t between our c o u n t r i e s
Not y e t 300 y e a r o f common e x p l o i t a t i o n and p o l l u t i o n of t h e N o r t h S e a
300 y e a r i s i n d e e d s o m e t h i n g r a r e enough t o l i n g e r a t i n o r d e r t o r e v i e w t h e p a s t , t o l o o k a t t h e p r e s e n t and t o d i s c u s s t h e f u t u r e c o u r s e o f a c t i o n
However I w i l l p r e s e r v e t h e l i n g e r f o r tomorrow t o much more c a p a b l e p e o p l e , my c o n t r i b u t i o n on t h i s moment w i l l be s h o r t w i n d e d
The M a r i t i m e d i v i s i o n of t h e R o y a l I n s t i t u t i o n o f E n g i n e e r s i n The N e t h e r l a n d s t o o k t h e i n i t i a t i v e t o j o i n f o r c e s w i t h b i g s i s t e r t h e N e t h e r l a n d s S o c i e t y o f M a r i t i m e T e c h n o l o g i s t s and our p e e r s from t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e N o r t h S e a t h e R o y a l I n s t i t u t i o n o f N a v a l A r c h i t e c t s and The I n s t i t u t e o f M a r i n e E n g i n e e r s t o o r g a n i z e t h i s symposium
T h e r e were and a r e a number o f i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n s t o do so b e c a u s e we a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t we s t a n d a t t h e b r i n k of b i g e v e n t s w i t h g r e a t i m p a c t on t h e m a r i n e i n d u s t r y and t r a d e between our c o u n t r i e s . To m e n t i o n some: - t h e r e w i l l be t h e economic u n i f i c a t i o n o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e i n 1992 - t h e r e i s t h e s t a r t o f t h e d i g g i n g o f a t u n n e l b e t w e e n t h e c o n t i n e n t and t h e U n i t e d Kingdom - T h e r e i s t h e i m p o r t a n c e t o p r o t e c t our N o r t h S e a e n v i r o n m e n t . - How w i l l we cope, a d e p t , r e a c t t o s u r v i v e ?
Lecture 1
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF TRANSPORTATION BETWEEN THE UK AND THE
CONTINENT
F r e d M T a l k e r . Bsc CEng FRINA
Naval Architect - National Maritime Museum - Greenwich
'300 YEAR NORTH SEA'
- CROSSING AND ENVIRONMENT
SEAGOING
SYMPOSIUM
March 15. 1989
NORTH SEA : LINK BETWEEN UK AND CONTINENT
Synopsis
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF TRANSPORTATION BETWEEN THE UK AND THE CONTINENT
Auttior : Fred M W a l k e r . BSc CEng FRINA
- Naval Architect, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich
For centuries, a complex web of shipping and transportation routes has supported the movement of people and goods between the Continent and the United Kingdom. This paper attempts some of the technical and historical influences in the past 300 years, influences which have shaped change in the English Channel and the Southern North Sea. Since William and Mary came to the Britishe Throne, there have been many proposals for alternative transport systems across the water; some of these are examined as are many of the ship types on the short sea routes.
300 Year N o r t h Sea C r o s s i n g
The W i l l i a m and Mary T e r c e n t e n a r y Conference o f
K o n i n k l i j k I n s t i t u u t v a n I n g e n i e u r s
N e d e r l a n d s e V e r e n i g i n g v a n T e c h n i c i op S c h e e p v a a r t g e b i e d Royal I n s t i t u t i o n o f N a v a l A r c h i t e c t s
I n s t i t u t e o f M a r i n e E n g i n e e r s
A H i s t o r i c a l Review o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n between t h e UK and t h e C o n t i n e n t by
F r e d M Walker
N a t i o n a l M a r i t i m e Museum, Greenwich
Hoek v a n H o l l a n d 15 March 1989
A H i s t o r i c a l Review o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n between t h e UK and t h e C o n t i n e n t
F r e d M Walker
For hundreds o f y e a r s , t h e N o r t h Sea has been a m o d e r a t i n g i n f l u e n c e on t h e p o l i c i e s o f t h e s t a t e s a l o n g i t s s h o r e s . These seas have g r a n t e d t o t h e B r i t i s h i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e b e n e f i t o f p r o t e c t i o n f r o m m i n o r c o n t i n e n t a l w a r s , a l t h o u g h n o t f r o m i n v a s i o n s w h i c h a r e p r e m e d i t a t e d e v e n t s r e q u i r i n g l o g i s t i c and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s k i l l s o f t h e h i g h e s t o r d e r . Such i n v a s i o n s have marked s i g n i f i c a n t moments i n European h i s t o r y , such as:
The Roman I n v a s i o n w i t h i t i s b e l i e v e d 80 t r a n s p o r t s each c a r r y i n g 150-200 men
The Saxon and D a n i s h I n v a s i o n s The 1 1 t h c e n t u r y Norman Conquest
The i n c u r s i o n s t o France o f Edward I I I and Henry V The u n s u c c e s s f u l Spanish Armadas o f 1588
The D u t c h Wars
K i n g W i l l i a m I I I and t h e l a n d i n g a t Torbay 1688 The N a p o l e o n i c Wars and C o n t i n e n t a l Blockade Massive t r o o p deplojrments 1914-1918
The e v a c u a t i o n o f D u n k i r k 1940 O p e r a t i o n O v e r l o r d 1944
D e s p i t e a l m o s t u n e n d i n g European war o v e r c e n t u r i e s , t h e f r e e f l o w o f p e o p l e has been m a i n t a i n e d a c r o s s t h e n a r r o w seas, w i t h access c l o s e d f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s o n l y i n t h e N a p o l e o n i c Wars and t h e Second W o r l d War. W i l l i a m s o n ( 1 ) w r i t e s "War h a t r e d ... never r e a c h e d t h e i n t e n s i t y t h a t we have r e g a r d e d as n o r m a l i n our t i m e . D i s p u t e s were economic r a t h e r t h a n e m o t i o n a l ... and merchant crews were c o s m o p o l i t a n " . I t i s r e c o r d e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e A n g l o - D u t c h Wars, l a r g e numbers o f Dutchmen were d o m i c i l e d i n E n g l a n d and S c o t l a n d , s i m i l a r l y many B r i t i s h l i v e d and t r a d e d ( a l b e i t w i t h d i f f i c u l t y ) i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s .
E s t u a r i e s and c o a s t a l w a t e r s were o f e s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e 200 y e a r s ago, as t h e i n d i f f e r e n t roads were u n m e t a l l e d and r a i l w a y s non e x i s t e n t . Most l o n g j o u r n e y s had a p a r t u n d e r t a k e n on r i v e r , sea o r c a n a l , and t h e R i v e r s S c h e l d t , Maas, Thames and t h e i r e s t u a r i e s assumed t h e r o l e s o f s e a p o r t and e n t r e p o t c l e a r i n g s t a t i o n s . Large towns r e q u i r e d s p e c i a l i s t s h i p p i n g s e r v i c e s f o r t h e d e l i v e r y o f c o a l , f o d d e r , f o o d s t u f f s and lumber and f o r t h e d i s p o s a l o f manure and waste. C o a s t a l towns d e v e l o p e d on t r a d i n g p o s t s l i k e t h e Cinque P o r t s o f South East England w i t h s p e c i a l t r a d i n g p r i v i l e g e s g r a n t e d i n r e t u r n f o r t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e r e a l m .
S h i p d e s i g n r e f l e c t e d t h e g e o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e a r e a and t h e b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l was i n d i g e n o u s t i m b e r . W h i l e c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s were
s o p h i s t i c a t e d , t h e s h i p s were s m a l l and c o n s e q u e n t l y s l o w and i n e f f i c i e n t . Few t e c h n i c a l r e c o r d s were m a i n t a i n e d p r i o r t o 1700 and t h e r e f o r e our knowledge o f e a r l i e r s h i p s i s t h r o u g h s c r a p s o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n and t h e s u p e r b work o f m a r i n e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s o f t h e p a s t 20 y e a r s .
E a r l y S h i p p i n g O p e r a t i o n s
The Roman s h i p s show a marked M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n f l u e n c e b u t w i t h a g r e a t e r d r a f t t h a n one w o u l d a n t i c i p a t e f o r a c t i v i t i e s o f f N o r t h Sea beaches o r i n sea i n l e t s such as t h e l o n g d r a i n e d lagoons o f England, now known as t h e Romney Marshes. However t h e shape o f t h e i r s h i p s i n f l u e n c e d t h o s e
s u c c e e d i n g l i k e t h e Cinque P o r t s t r a d e r s , t h e Cogs o f t h e H a n s e a t i c League and u l t i m a t e l y t h e i r l a r g e r s i s t e r s H u l k s and C a r r a c k s . S t e r n hung r u d d e r s were i n t r o d u c e d around t h e 1 2 t h o r 1 3 t h c e n t u r i e s and m i n o r changes i n shape i n d i c a t e d man's r e g a r d f o r n a t u r a l h a r b o u r s and w o r k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . The p r o l i f i c F l u t e was one o f t h e most r e m a r k a b l e examples showing a
s e a w o r t h y d e s i g n , c a p a b l e o f w o r k i n g i n s h a l l o w w a t e r and i n f l u e n c i n g Dutch s h i p b u i l d i n g f o r hundreds o f y e a r s . O c c a s i o n a l l y a g a l l e y f r o m France w o u l d v e n t u r e t h r o u g h t h e s e h o s t i l e seas b e a r i n g e m i s s a r i e s t o t h e S c o t t i s h C o u r t , and manned by r e l u c t a n t oarsmen c o n s c r i p t e d f r o m r e l i g i o u s
There was no u n i f o r m i t y i n s h i p p i n g s e r v i c e s u n t i l t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y when f o r m a l m a i l s e r v i c e s were i n t r o d u c e d i n B r i t a i n . From 1660 t h e P o s t O f f i c e o p e r a t e d f r o m Dover t o C a l a i s and D u n k i r k , and f r o m H a r w i c h t o t h e
N e t h e r l a n d s u s i n g t h e A d m i r a l t y o r c o m m e r c i a l sub c o n t r a c t o r s .
Passengers and c a r g o were c a r r i e d on " p a c k e t s " , a l l a i m i n g t o c r o s s t o France i n one t i d e , and i f n e c e s s a r y s t a n d i n g o f f and u s i n g F a r i n g Boats o r t e n d e r s t o t r a n s f e r passengers a s h o r e . For l o n g e r t r i p s t o H o l l a n d o r Hamburg l a r g e r p a c k e t s and f l u t e s were used on j o u r n e y s l a s t i n g upwards o f 2 days.
Smuggling w h i c h was a t i t s peak 200 y e a r s ago l e d t o advances i n s h i p d e s i g n as t h e smugglers t r i e d t o b e t t e r t h e K i n g ' s C r u i s e r s w h i c h i n t u r n i m p r o v e d t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e i n e v e r y p o s s i b l e way, i n c l u d i n g f i t t i n g e x t r a l o n g b o w s p r i t s , a f e a t u r e t h a t was i l l e g a l i n B r i t i s h merchant v e s s e l s a t t h e t i m e .
W i t h t h e i m p e t u s o f e n g i n e e r s i n France, S c o t l a n d and t h e USA, steam n a v i g a t i o n came t o t h e E n g l i s h Channel between 1815 and 1820, t h e f i r s t s h i p s b e i n g Marjory, Majestic and Rob Roy, two o f w h i c h had been b u i l t a t Dumbarton, a s m a l l C l y d e s i d e town t h a t was t o have a p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e on c r o s s c h a n n e l s h i p p p i n g . Commercial companies i n t r o d u c e d steamers
i n c l u d i n g t h e G e n e r a l Steam N a v i g a t i o n Co (GSN) o f London, b r i n g i n g o r d e r t o a c h a o t i c s i t u a t i o n . I t i s amazing t o l e a r n t h a t GSN (now P&O) abandoned s h o r t sea w o r k i n g a t t h a t t i m e on t h e grounds t h a t i t was t o o s p e c i a l i s e d a m a t t e r !
The B r i t i s h Post O f f i c e i n t r o d u c e d steam v e s s e l s t o t h e i r p a c k e t s e r v i c e i n t h e 1820s, e n h a n c i n g t h e i r e f f i c i e n c y and r e l i a b i l i t y e s p e c i a l l y o v e r
l o n g e r r o u t e s and a l s o a d d i n g a new name "Steam P a c k e t " t o t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . By 1830 r a i l w a y companies had been e s t a b l i s h e d and were e x p a n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e UK and w i t h i n n i n e y e a r s t h i s came a b o u t i n t h e
N e t h e r l a n d s . W i t h s w i f t r a i l w a y systems and r e l i a b l e s t e a m s h i p s a new age o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a v e l had begun.
Passenger S e r v i c e s 1830-1914
Steam power q u i c k l y s e c u r e d t h e c o n t i n e n t a l r o u t e s w i t h s h i p s owned by p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s and s m a l l companies o p e r a t i n g f r o m Dover, London, T i l b u r y , H a r w i c h , H u l l and o t h e r e a s t c o a s t p o r t s . The company names i n c l u d e d Haywards, Maples & M o r r i s , J e n k i n s & Churchward and o t h e r s now l o n g f o r g o t t e n , b u t c o l l e c t i v e l y t h e i r r o l e was i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u c t u r i n g t h e s h o r t sea s e r v i c e s and d o v e t a i l i n g them t o r a i l w a y t i m e t a b l e s . The sudden s p r e a d o f r a i l w a y n e t w o r k s a t t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d massive c a p i t a l sums, and t h e r a i l w a y p r o p r i e t o r s were eager t o c u l t i v a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h s h i p o w n e r s whose a d d i t i o n a l t r a d e a s s i s t e d i n o v e r h e a d r e c o v e r y . Most r a i l w a y s had r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e i r o p e r a t i n g c h a r t e r s and were d e b a r r e d f r o m owning o r o p e r a t i n g s h i p s ; some overcame t h i s by making f o r m a l arrangements w i t h s h i p p i n g companies, o t h e r s l i k e t h e South E a s t e r n R a i l w a y s c i r c u m v e n t e d t h e law by s e t t i n g up s a t e l l i t e o r g a n i s a t i o n s - i n t h i s case t h e South E a s t e r n & C o n t i n e n t a l Steam Packet Company. W i t h t h e s e and o t h e r manoeuvres, t h e r a i l w a y s o b t a i n e d s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r o l o f t h e s h o r t sea s t e a m s h i p s e r v i c e s by t h e 1860s.
M a i l s e r v i c e s were o p e r a t e d by t h e A d m i r a l t y u n t i l 1821, t h e n by t h e Post O f f i c e u n t i l 1837 w i t h r e g u l a t e d passenger f a r e s on t h e i r steam p a c k e t s . Changes o f government p o l i c y are n o t a 2 0 t h c e n t u r y phenomenon as b o r n e o u t by t h e p a c k e t s w h i c h r e v e r t e d t o A d m i r a l t y c o n t r o l and f o r a f u r t h e r 17 y e a r s r e g u l a r l y s a i l e d t o Hamburg, H e l l e v o e t s l u i s and C a l a i s . I n 1854 t h e w o r k was s u b c o n t r a c t e d t o t h e now dependable c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t o r s , whose s h i p s became e n t i t l e d t o t h e p r i z e d w h i t e p e n n a n t w i t h t h e r e d R o y a l M a i l p o s t h o r n c i p h e r , a r e m i n d e r o f t h e Dover m a i l s r e i n s t i t u t e d by K i n g James I (and V I ) i n 1606. C o n t i n e n t a l governments i n c l u d i n g t h e F r e n c h r e g u l a r l y p l a c e d c o n t r a c t s w i t h B r i t i s h s h i p s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e P o s t O f f i c e f o r m a i l c a r r i a g e - t h i s was n o t as u n u s u a l as one m i g h t suppose as t h e
m a j o r i t y o f s h i p s were B r i t i s h f l a g and t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e s h i p y a r d s o f t h e Thames, o f E a s t e r n England o r i n c r e a s i n g l y o f t h e C l y d e .
C o m p e t i t i o n was t o grow r a p i d l y w i t h many j o i n t s t o c k companies
c a p i t a l i s i n g on a v a s t i n c r e a s e i n t r a d e , b o t h passengers and c a r g o . A few o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t a r e l i s t e d : * N e t h e r l a n d s Steamship Co 1823 W i l s o n L i n e o f H u l l 1840 E a s t e r n C o u n t i e s R a i l w a y Company 1843 * South E a s t e r n & C o n t i n e n t a l SP Co 1845 B e l g i a n S t a t e R a i l w a y s 1846 London & South Western R a i l w a y 1848
Bergen L i n e 1851 * South E a s t e r n R a i l w a y 1853
N o r t h o f Europe SN Co 1854 Weymouth & Channel I s l a n d s SP Co 1857
* London Chatham 6e Dover R a i l w a y 1864
DFDS 1866 Z e e l a n d SS Co 1875
.# Wm H Müller & Co ( B a t a v i e r L i n e ) 1895
SAGA 1896 * South E a s t e r n & Chatham R a i l w a y 1899
* Amalgamation # Müller p u r c h a s e d London r i g h t s
The 1 9 t h c e n t u r y d e s i g n e r s o f c r o s s c h a n n e l s h i p s h a d an e x a c t i n g t a s k , u s i n g new t e c h n o l o g i e s t o c r e a t e s h i p s t h a t h a d t o meet r i g o r o u s s c h e d u l e s i n a demanding e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e i r p r o d u c t s were s h a l l o w d r a f t , s w i f t s h i p s endowed w i t h a good range o f s t a b i l i t y and a d d i t i o n a l l y f o r E n g l i s h Channel s e r v i c e h i g h o r d e r s o f b a c k i n g power. I r o n c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t r o d u c e d a r o u n d 1840 was a m a j o r s t e p i n l e n g t h e n i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e w a t e r l i n e and r e d u c i n g t h e r i s k o f v i b r a t i o n and w e a t h e r damage.
One o f t h e few good b y - p r o d u c t s p f t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l War was t h e s t i m u l u s i t gave B r i t i s h s h i p b u i l d e r s who b u i l t numbers o f f a s t s u c c e s s f u l b l o c k a d e r u n n e r s . I n n o v a t i o n s i n c l u d e d h i g h s p e e d steam e n g i n e s , i m p r o v e d p a d d l e wheels and even t h e use o f s t e e l d e s p i t e i t s p r o h i b i t i v e c o s t .
For d a r i n g , t h e p r i z e must go t o t h e London Chatham and Dover R a i l w a y f o r b u i l d i n g i n s u c c e s s i o n 3 u n u s u a l c r a f t - t h e t w i n h u l l e d Castalia o f 1874 and Calais Douvres o f 1877. N e i t h e r were s u c c e s s f u l and were w i t h d r a w n as was Bessemer a s i n g l e h u l l e d v e s s e l w i t h l o w f r e e b o a r d and a passenger s a l o o n g i m b a l l e d a l o n g t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s . The LC&DR r e t u r n e d t o c o n v e n t i o n a l d e s i g n s w i t h t h e i r PS Invicta o f 1882!
Development was s t e a d y however. Screw p r o p e l l e r s were a c c e p t e d more s l o w l y o w i n g t o d r a f t r e s t r i c t i o n s b u t w i t h i n a y e a r o f K i r k ' s m a s t e r y o f ' t r i p l e e x p a n s i o n on t h e SS Aberdeen i t was on t h e Channel and N o r t h Sea. Two s h i p s f r o m Denny o f Dumbarton t y p i f i e d t h e g r e a t t e c h n i c a l advances o f t h e t i m e ; t h e PS Princesse Henriette o f 1888 f o r B e l g i a n R a i l w a y s , a v i r t u a l l y d o u b l e ended r e c o r d b r e a k e r and f a s t e s t merchantman i n t h e w o r l d and t h e n i n 1903 t h e f i r s t t u r b i n e steamer on t h e Channel - The Queen f o r t h e South E a s t e r n & Chatham R a i l w a y w h i c h a c h i e v e d 214 k n o t s on t r i a l s b u t was l o s t on war s e r v i c e i n 1916.
C o n v e n t i o n a l F r e i g h t up t o 1914
T r u e steam c o a s t e r s as we now know them d i d n o t come a b o u t u n t i l t h e 1850s - i n d e e d i t can be s a i d t h a t t h e i r o n screw c o l l i e r John Bowes c o m p l e t e d b y Palmer's o f J a r r o w i n 1852 s e t t h e p a t t e r n f o r s m a l l power d r i v e n c a r g o s h i p s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y London m a i n t a i n e d i t s p o s i t i o n as t h e w o r l d ' s l e a d i n g p o s t and i n c r e a s i n g l y t r a n s h i p m e n t t o t h e c o n t i n e n t was b y c o a s t e r and s m a l l c a r g o v e s s e l . There was no
p a l l e t i s a t i o n , no use o f boxes and u n i v e r s a l l y c a r g o was p i e c e l o a d e d . By t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y many c o a s t a l shipowners had e v o l v e d " l i n e r
s e r v i c e s " u s u a l l y w i t h s h i p s o f a r o u n d 1,000 t o n s d.w. and o f t e n w i t h accommodation f o r 12 p a s s e n g e r s . Such companies i n c l u d e d Wm Müller, GSN and t h e Clyde S h i p p i n g Company, t h e l a t t e r h a v i n g a v i r t u a l r o u n d B r i t a i n n e t w o r k and c o n n e c t i o n s t o N o r t h West Europe. D u r i n g t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , s a i l i n g f r o m E d i n b u r g h t o London, and f r o m Glasgow t o B r i s t o l was
p r e f e r a b l e i n t h e eyes o f many o f t h e t r a v e l l i n g p u b l i c t o g o i n g b y t r a i n .
The G r e a t War 1914-1918
T h r o u g h o u t t h e s e t e r r i b l e y e a r s , t h e s t r a i n on t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n systems i n b o t h G r e a t B r i t a i n and I r e l a n d was c o l o s s a l . The s h i p p i n g companies o p e r a t i n g on d e p l e t e d f l e e t s t h r o u g h t h e r e q u i s i t i o n o f s h i p s f o r armed merchant c r u i s e r s , h o s p i t a l s h i p s and t r o o p s h i p s , had t o f a c e p u n i s h i n g s c h e d u l e s moving m i l l i o n s o f s e r v i c e m e n a c r o s s t h e I r i s h Sea, f r o m o u t l y i n g i s l a n d s and u l t i m a t e l y o v e r t h e E n g l i s h Channel. To add t o t h e p r o b l e m s the main r a i l w a y l i n e between Dover and F o l k e s t o n e was b l o c k e d b y l a n d s l i d e f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s these p o r t s worked u n c e a s i n g l y . One o f the r o a d s f r o m F o l k e s t o n e t o t h e R a i l w a y P i e r i s named t h e Road o f
Remembrance i n memory o f t h e one m i l l i o n one h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d who d i d n o t r e t u r n .
The s h i p l o s s e s were h i g h ; f o r example i n t h e H a r w i c h based G r e a t E a s t e r n F l e e t s i x s h i p s were l o s t and o n l y f i v e r e t u r n e d t o s e r v i c e i n 1918-19. I n a d d i t i o n t h e i r TSS Stockholm was r e q u i s i t i o n e d d i r e c t f r o m John Brown's s h i p y a r d and became HM A i r c r a f t C a r r i e r Pegasus as was t h e South E a s t e r n & Chatham's TrSS Engadine, w h i c h became a s e a p l a n e c a r r i e r i n 1914 g i v i n g i t an e s p e c i a l s l o t i n h i s t o r y .
T r a i n F e r r i e s
T r a i n f e r r i e s do n o t seem t o have been c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e N o r t h Sea and E n g l i s h Channel u n t i l t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f war made them a n e c e s s i t y . W i t h v i r t u a l l y t h e same r a i l w a y gauge between UK and W e s t e r n Europe, and a d e s p e r a t e need t o move war m a t e r i a l s f r o m E n g l i s h p o r t s s t r a i g h t t o t h e f r o n t l i n e , t h e r a i l f e r r y was r e i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e B r i t i s h merchant f l e e t i n 1917.
The o r g a n i s e r s d i d n o t have f a r t o l o o k t o f i n d p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e as t h e f i r s t t r a i n f e r r y s h i p had o p e r a t e d a mere 450 m i l e s n o r t h o f London as e a r l y as 1850. T h i s was t h e s e r v i c e over t h e R i v e r F o r t h i n S c o t l a n d w h i c h c o n t i n u e d f o r 40 y e a r s u n t i l t h e g r e a t F o r t h R a i l w a y B r i d g e was c o m p l e t e d .
A c r o s s t h e w a t e r Dansk S t a t s Baner i n t r o d u c e d such f e r r i e s i n 1872, t h e I t a l i a n s i n 1899 and t h e Germans i n 1905. The o l d e s t f r e s h w a t e r s e r v i c e was i n S w i t z e r l a n d a t t h e Bodensee w h i c h commenced a r o u n d 1869.
The B r i t i s h War O f f i c e D i r e c t o r a t e o f I n l a n d Waterways & Docks s e t up two s u i t a b l e p o r t s : The f i r s t R i c h b o r o u g h i n Kent w h i c h went i n t o o p e r a t i o n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1918 was f o r a barge s e r v i c e and r a i l f e r r i e s t o C a l a i s and D u n k i r k . The o t h e r was Southampton f o r t h e much l o n g e r s a i l s t o Dieppe and Cherbourg.
Three s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d t r a i n f e r r i e s TFI, TF2 and TF3 were b u i l t a t N e w c a s t l e b y A r m s t r o n g W h i t w o r t h and Glasgow b y t h e F a i r f i e l d S h i p y a r d o f Govan. A f o u r t h v e s s e l TF4 was a c o n v e r t e d t a n k e r c o m p l e t e d i n 1914 b y Cammell L a i r d o f B i r k e n h e a d . T h e i r war s e r v i c e , a l t h o u g h s h o r t , was s t u p e n d o u s . They a c h i e v e d 25 m i n u t e t u r n r o u n d t i m e s r e l e a s i n g t w i c e as many s h i p s f o r more r o u t i n e d u t i e s .
I n 1923 La Société B e l g o - A n g l a i s e des F e r r y Boats SA and G r e a t E a s t e r n F e r r i e s s t a r t e d t o o p e r a t e t h e war b u i l t f e r r i e s between H a r w i c h and
Zeebrugge. On t h e l i q u i d a t i o n o f GEF i n 1932, t h e o p e r a t i o n was t a k e n o v e r by t h e LNER, r e m a i n i n g i n B r i t i s h R a i l ' s hands u n t i l t h e c l o s u r e o f t h e s e r v i c e i n t h e 1980s.
The Dover s e r v i c e was i n a u g u r a t e d i n October 1936 w i t h t h r e e n e w l y b u i l t v e s s e l s f r o m Swan H u n t e r o f N e w c a s t l e . T h i s s e r v i c e h a d been p r o p o s e d f i r s t i n 1912 and was d e l a y e d b y t h e war, and o n l y c o n t e m p l a t e d a g a i n once t h e B r i t i s h Government h a d v o t e d a g a i n s t t h e Channel T u n n e l i n 1930! T h i s s e r v i c e w h i c h has seen s o m e t h i n g l i k e a dozen f e r r i e s t h r o u g h t h e y e a r s c o n t i n u e s t o t h i s day, w i t h a t p r e s e n t t h e b u l k o f t h e work b e i n g done b y t h e SNCF s h i p Nord Pas-de-Calais on about 3 r o u n d t r i p s a day. T h i s l i n k i s l i k e l y t o cease on t h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f t h e Channel T u n n e l .
The most r o m a n t i c p e r i o d o f t h e t r a i n f e r r i e s must have been t h e p o s t war n i g h t passenger s e r v i c e w i t h t h e c a r r i a g e o f passengers s l e e p i n g
u n d i s t u r b e d f r o m P a r i s and o t h e r c i t i e s t o London. I t s r e i n t r o d u c t i o n soon a f t e r t h e Second W o r l d War s i g n a l l e d t h e s t a r t o f Europe's r e t u r n t o
n o r m a l i t y .
The I n t e r War Years
These u n s e t t l e d y e a r s saw t h e s t e a d y e v o l u t i o n o f passenger s h i p d e s i g n w i t h emphasis on c o m f o r t and c o n v e n i e n c e . O v e r n i g h t accommodation became s t a n d a r d and w i t h h i g h e r s h i p u t i l i s a t i o n , d i f f i c u l t i e s were c r e a t e d i n s h i p s w h i c h h a d one permanent crew. I n t h e UK, t h e new r a i l w a y g r o u p i n g s t o o k e f f e c t i n 1923, and i n 1927 t h e LNER came t o a j o i n t r u n n i n g agreement w i t h t h e Z e e l a n d SS Co o v e r t h e r o u t e w h i c h t h e n t e r m i n a t e d a t F l u s h i n g . D e s p i t e change o f t e r m i n a l t h i s agreement s t i l l s t a n d s .
The most p r e s t i g i o u s s e r v i c e was t h e S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y ' s "Golden Arrow" f o r w h i c h s p e c i a l e x p r e s s e s o p e r a t e d i n S o u t h e r n England and i n France and f o r w h i c h Denny o f Dumbarton p r o d u c e d t h e m a g n i f i c e n t TSS Canterbury i n 1929. T h i s s h i p was t o i n f l u e n c e a l l f u r t h e r c r o s s c h a n n e l v e s s e l s .
D e s i g n changes i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e 1930s i n c l u d e d more e n c l o s e d and h i g h e r d e c k s , o i l f i r i n g i n t h e b o i l e r rooms and r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e f a c t t h a t p a s s e n g e r s h a d s m a l l e r s u i t c a s e s and were p r e p a r e d t o c a r r y them. I n 1925 DFDS i n t r o d u c e d t w i n d i e s e l p r o p u l s i o n i n t h e i r Parkeston c l a s s , and t h i s was f o l l o w e d i n 1934 b y B e l g i a n S t a t e R a i l w a y s Prince Baudouin and i n 1939 by Koningin Ennna o f SMZ. The Prince Baudouin was t h e f a s t e s t d i e s e l
e n g i n e d s h i p a f l o a t ( o v e r 25 k n o t s on t r i a l ) and i n a d d i t i o n h a d v a s t l y i m p r o v e d a s t e r n p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h h e r S u l z e r d i e s e l s o f f e r i n g t h e same bhp i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n .
To overcome t h e r e c e s s i o n and i n c r e a s e s h i p u t i l i s a t i o n s e v e r a l companies s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t r o d u c e d c r u i s i n g ; t h e Bergen L i n e , t h e N o r t h o f S c o t l a n d , Orkney & S h e t l a n d SP f r o m Aberden and LNER f r o m P a r k e s t o n Quay.
The e x t e n d i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e motor c a r was r e c o g n i s e d when Hendersons o f Glasgow b u i l t t h e TSS Autocarrier, u s i n g l i f t o f f methods f r o m an extended q u a r t e r d e c k . F r e i g h t t r a n s h i p m e n t f r o m London c o n t i n u e d , b u t o t h e r p o r t s r e c e i v e d a b o o s t w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o a s t a l c a r g o l i n e r s e r v i c e s by the B r i t i s h and C o n t i n e n t a l SP c a l l i n g r e g u l a r l y a t A n t w e r p , B e l f a s t , D u b l i n , Glasgow, L i v e r p o o l and Rotterdam.
The Second W o r l d War
For t h e f i r s t t i m e a l l o f f i c i a l c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e o c c u p i e d C o n t i n e n t ended a f t e r May 1940 w i t h t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f t h e B r i t i s h E x p e d i t i o n a r y Force f r o m France and t h e e v a c u a t i o n o f D u n k i r k . Over 320,000 men were b r o u g h t f r o m t h e D u n k i r k beaches by an Armada o f w a r s h i p s , merchantmen, p l e a s u r e s t e a m e r s , l i f e b o a t s and y a c h t s , many o f w h i c h had been r e q u i s i t i o n e d s h o r t l y b e f o r e and h a n d l e d i n many cases by h a s t i l y g a t h e r e d v o l u n t e e r crews.
H a p p i l y t h e r e t u r n t o France was d i f f e r e n t i n June 1944, w i t h a f l e e t o f 5,000 s h i p s s u p p o r t e d by many thousands o f s m a l l c r a f t . Three e n g i n e e r i n g t r i u m p h s s t a n d o u t , f i r s t t h e l a r g e number o f v a r i e d t y p e s o f l a n d i n g c r a f t
- a new d e s i g n c o n c e p t b o r n o f t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f war, second t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f two a r t i f i c i a l p o r t s ( M u l b e r r y H a r b o u r s ) u s i n g spud c o n t r o l l e d a n c h o r i n g p o i n t s j o i n e d by l o n g f l o a t i n g l i n k s and p r o t e c t e d f r o m t h e w o r s t sea c o n d i t i o n s by sunk c a i s s o n s and b l o c k s h i p s and t h i r d t h e l a y i n g a c r o s s t h e Channel o f PLUTO ( P i p e L i n e under t h e Ocean) t o s u p p l y the a l l i e d a r m i e s w i t h f u e l .
The s t r a t e g y o f t h e M u l b e r r y H a r b o u r s a l l o w e d f l e e t s on war b u s i n e s s and i n c r e a s i l y i n 1945 on peace t i m e a c t i v i t i e s t o bypass t h e war s h a t t e r e d p o r t s . One f o r m o f s h i p i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e LST(3) o r T r a n s p o r t F e r r y o f 105,4 m e t r e s o.a. and l i g h t d i s p l a c e m e n t o f 2256 t o n s f o u n d a n i c h e i n t h e p o s t war R o y a l Navy, as w e l l as t h e Merchant S e r v i c e .
The A t l a n t i c SN Co, f o u n d e d i n 1935, b u t dormant owing t o war c o n d i t i o n s s t a r t e d Ro-Ro o p e r a t i o n s w i t h LST's between England and N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d and l a t e r on t h e N o r t h Channel between S c o t l a n d and N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d and t h e n between T i l b u r y . Hamburg, Antwerp and R o t t e r d a m . W i t h t h i s s m a l l b e g i n n i n g t h e R o l l o n - R o l l o f f r e v o l u t i o n h a d begun.
The Rhine Sea F l e e t
The r u n down i n t r a d i t i o n a l s e a p o r t s i s a d e p r e s s i v e and c l e a r l y v i s i b l e phenomenon o f l a t e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y l i f e . W i t h t h e i n c r e a s e o f Ro-Ro a c t i v i t y , c o n t a i n e r i s a t i o n and d e d i c a t e d b u l k h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s , t h e b r e a k b u l k l i n e r w i t h h i g h o n c o s t s and s l o w r a t e o f t u r n r o u n d i s an a r t e f a c t o f t h e p a s t . A l e s s d i s c e r n i b l e t r e n d b u t one o f v a s t i m p o r t a n c e i s t h e g r o w t h o f a f l e e t o f European i n l a n d b u t s e a g o i n g f r e i g h t e r s w h i c h a r e t r a n s f o r m i n g t r a d e i n s m a l l e r c o a s t a l and i n l a n d p o r t s .
The N e t h e r l a n d s has a r o u n d 5,000 m i l e o f waterways, most o f w h i c h a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e g r e a t i n l a n d c a n a l s and r i v e r s o f Europe. The D u t c h
i n l a n d f l e e t was n e a r i n g i t s peak a r o u n d t h e e a r l y 1960s and t h e n h a d about 16,000 v e s s e l s t o t a l l i n g 45 m i l l i o n tonnes d.w. The dominant f l a g on t h e Rhine t h e n was D u t c h w i t h o v e r 40% o f t h e " i n t e r n a t i o n a l " v o y a g i n g on t h e r i v e r and a s s o c i a t e d t r i b u t a r i e s .
The Mannheim T r e a t y o f 1868 a s s u r e d f r e e n a v i g a t i o n on t h e r i v e r , a r i g h t a s s e r t e d by t h e West Germans, t h e F r e n c h , t h e B e l g i a n s , t h e Swiss and t h e A u s t r i a n s . P r e s e n t f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e t h a t n e a r l y 12,000 s h i p s a r e on t h e Rhine and a s s o c i a t e d w a t e r s a t any one t i m e . The g r e a t p o r t s o f R o t t e r d a m , R x i h r o r t , Worms, S t r a s b o u r g and B a s e l were t h e main l o a d i n g and d i s c h a r g i n g p o i n t s - B a s e l a l o n e h a n d l e s 9 m i l l i o n tonnes o f c a r g o p e r y e a r , b u t s l o w l y s i n c e t h e 1970s, t h e f l e e t has o p e r a t e d more w i d e l y and p u r p o s e b u i l t f r e i g h t e r s c a n now work c o m f o r t a b l y i n t h e B a l t i c and t h e N o r t h Sea.
I n 1979, t h e B r i t i s h owned, b u t Singapore r e g i s t e r e d Union Gem l i f t e d 1,025 t o n n e s s u g a r i n London and d e l i v e r e d i t t o B a s e l 54 days l a t e r and a new
4
TSMy Be>lfc»^ Ai3t>«iiy ^|4
TSMy Be>lfc»^ Ai3t>«iiy ^|^ 1 ^ - ^ I ^
t r a d e had been e s t a b l i s h e d . I n t h e p a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s s e v e r a l h u n d r e d low-a i r d r low-a f t v e s s e l s hlow-ave been b u i l t , low-and on low-a slow-ample o f A50 t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s emerge: C o u n t r y o f B u i l d % * Owning C o u n t r y % W Germany 52 W Germany 48 N e t h e r l a n d s 26 N e t h e r l a n d s 20 UK 10 UK 16 F i n l a n d 4 F i n l a n d 4 Denmark 3 USSR 4 O t h e r s 5 O t h e r s 8 * B e l i e v e d c o r r e c t a l l o w i n g f o r known n a t i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s f o r f l a g s o f c o n v e n i e n c e
The Dutch were hampered by t h e i r manning r e g u l a t i o n s based on h u l l l e n g t h u n t i l 1982, and were s l o w e r i n t i a l l y i n t h i s t r a d e .
T h i s new f l e e t has an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n h a n d l i n g b u l k , b r e a k b u l k and c o n t a i n e r s . The c u r r e n t number o f v e s s e l s c o u l d a c c o u n t f o r a t l e a s t 50 m i l l i o n tonnes c a r g o p e r y e a r , and i s a s t i m u l u s t o t h o s e w i s h i n g t o reduce o u r dependence on j u g g e r n a u t s and motorways. Many s m a l l p o r t s i n t h e UK have been r e i n v i g o r a t e d l i k e Rye i n East Sussex o r P e r t h i n S c o t l a n d . These s h i p s w i l l have a r e m a r k a b l y u n i f y i n g e f f e c t on European s h i p p i n g .
On t h e t e c h n i c a l f r o n t t h e y e n j o y f a i r l y good f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n , have l o w l e v e l s o f manning and most d i s p l a y i n n o v a t i v e f e a t u r e s l i k e A z i m u t h a l p r o p e l l e r t h r u s t e r s , h y d r a u l i c a l l y o p e r a t e d wheelhouses, powered h a t c h c o v e r s and good u n l o a d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Many a r o u n d t h e 2,000 tonnes d.w. a r e n o t u n l i k e t h e o l d Rhine Classes I V and V b u t w i t h r e d u c e d a i r d r a f t and s l i g h t l y i n c r e a s e d h u l l d r a f t .
The R o l l o n - R o l l o f f R e v o l u t i o n
I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e Second W o r l d War, t h e f e r r y o p e r a t i o n s competed t o o b t a i n s h i p b u i l d i n g b e r t h s t o r e p l a c e l o s t tonnage and t o r e g a i n t h e t r a d e l o s t d u r i n g t h e y e a r s o f c o n f l i c t . I n 1948 t h e f o u r B r i t i s h R a i l w a y
companies were n a t i o n a l i s e d and merged and e v e r y e f f o r t was made t o r a t i o n a l i s e t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s i n t e r n a l l y , and t o s t r e a m l i n e w o r k i n g
arrangements w i t h t h e i r p a r t n e r s i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , B e l g i u m , I r e l a n d and France. From t h e B r i t i s h T r a n s p o r t Commission a new b r e e d o f s h i p emerged, e l e g a n t and w i t h a c l e a r " f a m i l y appearance". A l l t h i s t o o k p l a c e i n
p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e m o d e r n i s a t i o n o f t h e e x i s t i n g f l e e t and t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f any o u t s t a n d i n g c o a l b u r n e r s .
The r o l l o n - r o l l o f f v e s s e l s were a n a t u r a l outcome o f t h e g r o w t h i n r o a d t r a n s p o r t and t h e v i t a l need o f a l l European s h i p o w n e r s t o i n c r e a s e s h i p u t i l i s a t i o n . O t h e r developments were: G r e a t e r use o f m a r i n e d i e s e l s M a n o e u v r i n g d e v i c e s , bow p r o p e l l e r s CP p r o p e l l e r s M u l t i crew o p e r a t i o n M u l t i p l e c a r and r a i l w a y decks Improved p o r t l i n k s p a n f a c i l i t i e s
The g r e a t e s t s a v i n g i n o p e r a t i n g c o s t s i s a t t h e p o r t end and f a s t t u r n r o u n d t i m e s can be more e f f e c t i v e t h a n a d d i t i o n a l speed a t sea w i t h i t s o n c o s t i n f u e l .
The Ro-Ro t r a d e had been i n a u g u r a t e d by Denny's d i e s e l e n g i n e d Princess
Victoria ( t h i r d o f t h e name) i n 1939 f o r t h e LMS N o r t h Channel r o u t e f r o m
S c o t l a n d t o I r e l a n d . The l o s s o f t h i s s h i p on war s e r v i c e i n 1940 l e d t o an a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l r e p l a c e m e n t w i t h t h e same name i n 1947, coming a g a i n f r o m Dumbarton. I n t h e storms w h i c h c r e a t e d havoc i n t h e UK and f l o o d e d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s on 31 J a n u a r y 1953, t h e Princess Victoria was overwhelmed
and f o u n d e r e d w i t h t h e l o s s o f 133 l i v e s . T h i s was t h e f i r s t Ro-Ro
a c c i d e n t and h i g h l i g h t e d 36 y e a r s ago t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f t h e s e c r a f t and the problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l a r g e u n o b s t r u c t e d c a r decks.
Ro-Ro S a f e t v
I n v i e w o f w o r l d w i d e p u b l i c c o n c e r n f o l l o w i n g t h e l o s s o f t h e Herald of
Free Enterprise o u t s i d e Zeebrugge Harbour on 6 March 1987, i t w i l l be i n
o r d e r t o b r i e f l y m e n t i o n Ro-Ro s a f e t y , and f o r t h e a u t h o r t o e x p r e s s a p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n .
Between 1953 and 1986 t h e r e were about 26 p r i n c i p a l c a s u a l t i e s t o Ro-Ro s h i p s w o r l d w i d e , i n w h i c h o n l y two had a l o s s o f l i f e g r e a t e r t h a n 100.
The a u t h o r , u s i n g v e r y a p p r o x i m a t e methods c a l c u l a t e d i n March 1987 t h a t the chance o f a passenger b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n a " p r i n c i p a l c a s u a l t y " was l e s s t h a n 1 i n a q u a r t e r o f a m i l l i o n , and h i s chances o f d y i n g were as l o w as 1 i n 3 o r 4 m i l l i o n .
I n t h e 1988 T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e R o y a l I n s t i t u t i o o n o f N a v a l A r c h i t e c t s , Mr J R Spouge ( 2 ) has q u a n t i f i e d t h e s e r i s k s on a more s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s and has c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e r i s k t o l i f e i s one o f t h e l o w e s t i n a l l t h e t r a n s p o r t i n d u s t r y .
N a v a l a r c h i t e c t s a r e aware o f t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f Ro-Ros and e v e r y e f f o r t must be made t o e n s u r e t h e i r s a f e t y a f t e r u n f o r e s e e n a c c i d e n t s , b u t t h e f a c t s r e m a i n s t h e y a r e r e m a r k a b l y s a f e v e h i c l e s .
C o m p e t i t i o n
Since t h e Second W o r l d War t h e s h o r t sea s h i p s have been s u b j e c t t o c o m p e t i t i o n f i r s t f r o m a i r c r a f t and l a t t e r l y f r o m h o v e r c r a f t and h y d r o f o i l s . The g r o w t h o f a i r t r a f f i c has n o t a f f e c t e d t h e f e r r i e s
d i r e c t l y as t h e r e have been v a s t i n c r e a s e s i n p e o p l e t r a v e l l i n g between t h e
UK and t h e c o n t i n e n t . I n t h e n e x t decade a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l c o n g e s t i o n i n Europe may w o r k i n f a v o u r o f t h e s h i p s .
H o v e r c r a f t , h y d r o f o i l s and j e t f o i l s w h i l s t r e p r e s e n t i n g a f a i r amount o f b u s i n e s s , a g a i n w i l l n o t a p p r e c i a b l y reduce t h e numbers t r a v e l l i n g by c o n v e n t i o n a l f e r r i e s .
The T u n n e l i s , however, d i f f e r e n t and w i l l be a s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t o r t o a l l o t h e r forms o f t r a n s p o r t , o f f e r i n g i n t e r r a i l t r a n s h i p m e n t o f f r e i g h t f r o m a wide range o f p o r t s , i n c l u d i n g L i v e r p o o l o r t h e Clyde t o C e n t r a l Europe.
The s h i p p i n g o p e r a t o r s w i l l have t o f i g h t f o r a more c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d m a r k e t , and t h e y w i l l have t o o f f e r s p e c i a l s e r v i c e s t o a t t r a c t t h e m o t o r i s t and t h e h o l i d a y m a k e r s .
The S h o r t Sea S h i p o f t h e F u t u r e
I t may w e l l be l a r g e , o p e r a t i n g a t l o w e r speeds t h a n we a r e accustomed t o a t p r e s e n t . I t w i l l o f f e r t h e passenger g r e a t c o m f o r t , good f o o d , r e s t and e n t e r t a i n m e n t i f d e s i r e d . The main r o u t e s such as D o v e r - C a l a i s may o p e r a t e on a s h i p p o o l i n g b a s i s w i t h v e s s e l s l e a v i n g h o u r l y on a s h u t t l e system w i t h t i c k e t s p u r c h a s e d aboard, and e v e r y customer a s s u r e d o f a most p l e a s a n t j o u r n e y .
Such s h i p s can be d e s i g n e d f o r a l i f e span o f 20 y e a r s , s i n c e a f t e r a c e n t u r y o f u n c e r t a i n t y , t h e p o l i t i a l s c e n a r i o o f t h e Channel T u n n e l i s now f i x e d . W i t h c a r e f u l p l a n n i n g and e v e r i m p r o v i n g s t a n d a r d s o f e n g i n e e r i n g t h e s e s h i p s w i l l be as s a f e as any known. The s h o r t sea f e r r y i s e n t e r i n g a new phase i n i t s l o n g h i s t o r y o f s e r v i c e t o our c o n t i n e n t , and one can be a s s u r e d o f e x c i t i n g developments ahead.
Acknowledgements:
C o l l e a g u e s a t t h e N a t i o n a l M a r i t i m e Museum, Greenwich A J Rogan Esq, o f H a r t Fenton & Co L t d
D G r i f f i t h s Esq, L i v e r p o o l
The Channel Tunnel Group L i m i t e d P o r t o f Dover
R e f e r e n c e s :
1. The English Channel J A W i l l i a m s o n
C o l l i n s , London & Glasgow 1959
2. The Safety of Ro-Ro Passenger Ferries J R Spouge
T r a n s : R o y a l I n s t i t u t i o n o f N a v a l A r c h i t e c t s 1988
B i b l i o g r a p h y :
The P o r t o f Arromanches 5 a r t i c l e s
Shipbuilding & Shipping Record
15 F e b r u a r y - 10 May 1945
Ships of the Invasion Fleet
R Baker
T r a n s : R o y a l I n s t i t u t i o n o f N a v a l A r c h i t e c t s V o l 89 1947
Train Ferries of Western Europe
P Ramsome-Wallis
I a n A l l a n , London 1968
Engineering Economics and Ship Design
I L B u x t o n
B r i t i s h S h i p Research A s s o c i a t i o n , WalIsend-on-Tyne 1976
ISSO 1910 "9TO
I P A S S E > 1 G E J ^ S A U L R O O T E S S O O T H E . R M EMGLAhOID "TO T H e C O S J T l M E X i T B X C U O D I K J G U K . ~ r o P U O S H I M G A K J D t50"TTERDAJsA .
2. A L L P A S S E : > J G E . R . S " r H R . O U G H D O V E J ? . IKJ K E K J T
3 P A S S E j v i G E J S . M O N J E L M E h J T S BErT\MELE>J U K A N D CONi-TlME>J-T B Y S E A
i K i C L U D I K i G K i O R T H A P R I C A £L MID DLE. E A S T M E D l T E R t S A N i E A M CCSÜNiTRlES A- P A S S E K I G E I I ? . N A O V E J v l E K T T S B E T V ^ E L E K i U K . A K l D C O i s i T l M E K l T B V A l R . 5 F O R E C A S T (ise.<i,) O F E L U R O T T U M M E J - . P A S > S E I M G E J 5 . M O M B E R S 6 F O R- H X A S T C>I^ O V E R A U- U K — C O M T l K i E L M T P A S S E L h O G E J ^ CSEIA/nAKiD So u r c e s •• U K. . ^ i j s i s i u A u A B S -t r a c - j o f S T A - r i s - r \ c s l ^ s t ^ " T H E . C M A K J K l E A - T O K J N l E - l - CS,F5.CiOP= L T C s . l g
A MlST<=>eiCAu R E V I E W TRAMEPoB-TA-no>o UK / C WT .
£0-r>H eEjviTORY CRosS CHAJviMEU- /sWoRT S E A RQO T E S U K - lR.EJ_^MO - SCAKiD/KiANJlA - MAIMUASJD CCMTlME>NiT
Lecture 2
FUTURE MARKET FOR CROSSINGS - CONSTRAINTS OP OPPORTUNITIES
W.A. Muloci Houver
Chairman of the Royal Netherlands Shipowners' Association Member of the Board of the Royal Nedlloyd Group - Rotterdam
'300 YEAR NORTH SEA"
- CROSSING AND ENVIRONMENT
SEAGOING
SYMPOSIUM
March 13. 1989
NORTH SEA : LINK BETWEEN UK AND CONTINENT
Synopsis
FUTURE MARKET FOR CROSSINGS - CONSTRAINTS OR OPPORTUNITIES
Author : W.A. Mulock Houwer,
- Chairman of the Royal Netherlands Shipowners' Association Member of the Board of the Royal Nedlloyd Group, Rotterdam
The construction of the Channel Tunnel has aroused many peoples' interest in the cross-channel and North Sea transport. For ferry operators the Tunnel is just one of the uncertainties which will evolve over the next decade.
Other facts and developments with a strong influence on the trade are: The traffic imbalance, the bacl<up infra structure and the EG proposals for VAT, fuel excise and duty free sales Further the ferry transporters has to deal with the incertainties of the trade growth and the changes in tha distribution and travelling patterns as a result of the open market after 1992. These events will have many implications for the ro-ro trade and will continue to ask very much commercial flexibility of the operators,
Lecture A 3
PRESENT DAY FERRY DESIGN FOR THE UK - CONTINENT
CHANNEL CROSSING
A.J. Ro«an. Bsc CEng FRINA
Director Hart, Fenton and CoConsulting Naval Architects, Marine Engineers and Ship Surveyors - London
'300 YEAR NORTH SEA'
- CROSSING AND ENVIRONMENT
SEAGOING
SYMPOSIUM
March 15. 1989
NQBIH SEA • UNK BETWEEN UK AND CONTINENT
Synopsis
PRESENT DAY FERRY DESIGN FOR THE UK - CONTINENT CHANNEL CROSSING
Author : A . J . Rogan, BSc CEng FRINA
- Director Hart, Fenton and Co, Consulting Naval Architects, Marine Eng. and Ship Surveyors, London
The development of ferry designs over the past quarter of a century is discussed and the progression from the 'Classic' passenger ferry to the present day multipurpose type of vessel is described. Reference is, in particular, made to:
1. The evolution of the Ro-Ro passenger vessel and the accompanying developments of port facilities.
2. The benefits resulting from economy of scale as capacity of ferries has increased,
3. The changes in expectations of passengers making a ferry crossing and the transition of the business from one of simply offering a transportation link between land masses to one of offering an enjoyable mini-cruise experience,
Design innovations necessary to meet constantly changing commercial requirements are outlined and a number of subtle changes in the geometry of modern ferries are explained.
Looking to the future of air traval and the Channel Tunnel on the economic survival of ferry operations, the options open to operators are examined. Possible future employment of novel and sometimes exotic forms of transport is outlined.
FERRY BUSINESS TODAY
so Buch
morethan just a aeans of traasportation
Drs. R. Yaardenburg
Member of the Board of Management of CROWN LINE' - Hook of Holland
"300 YEAR NORTH
SEA-CROSSING AND ENVIRONMENT
SEAGOING
SYMPOSIUM
March 15. 1989
C
ROWN
L
INE
HOEK VAN HOLLAND - HARWICH
Drs. R. Waardenburg
F e r r y b u s i n e s s today - so much more than j u s t a means of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
Summary
During the p a s t two decades the f e r r y b u s i n e s s has shown some major changes. E s p e c i a l l y i n Scandinavia we can observe t h a t those companies t h a t were w i l l i n g to p r a c t i c e new i d e a s and
methods i n both the c o n s t r u c t i o n and the operation óf c a r f e r r i e s and r o r o tonnage have enjoyed a s u b s t a n t i a l growth. C o n s i d e r a b l e know-how has thus been amassed and t h i s has been followed by o p e r a t o r s throughout the world, who have d i s c o v e r e d t o t h e i r d e l i g h t t h a t the a p p l i c a t i o n of these i d e a s o f t e n ensures improved l e v e l s of p r o f i t a b i l i t y .
More and more these f e r r y companies have changed from product o r i e n t a t e d shipping companies towards market o r i e n t a t e d t r a v e l and t r a n s p o r t s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
I n t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s not only the f e r r y as such, but f a r more the people i n v o l v e d a r e seen as the k e y - f a c t o r t o improve t h e s e r v i c e a s p e c t s and thus t h e b a s i s f o r b e t t e r economic r e s u l t s . They c o n s i d e r people not any longer as a c o s t f a c t o r but a s the most v a l u a b l e resource of a company. The c r u i s e - f e r r y concept has g i v e n the p r e s e n t f e r r y b u s i n e s s a new dimension.
Lecture B 3
EFFECTS OF OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION ON THE NORTH SEA
D.E. Martin
Senior Environmental Scientist - B P. International Ltd. - United Kingdom
'300 YEAR NORTH SEA'
- CROSSING AND ENVIRONMENT
SEAGOING
SYMPOSIUM
March 13. 1989
NORTH SEA : ENVIRONMENT BETWEEN UK AND THE CONTINENT
Synopsis
EFFECTS OF OIL AND OAS PRODUCTION ON THE NORTH SEA Author : D.E. M a r t i n .
- Senior Environmental Scientist, B.P. International Ltd.
The North Sea Oil and Gas Industry is a major undertaking by any standards. Production in 1986 amounted to 177 M. tonnes of oil and 96.000 M. m3 of gas, together equivalent to nearly 400 M tonnes of coal, but with a very much lower sulphur content. All this has been achieved with a comparatively small impact on the environment of the North Sea.
So far, some 75 oil platforms have been built, and over 9000 km of pipelines lais. Quite apart from the effects of this construction activity, the very presence of all this ironmongery must have some impact on the fishing industry. The greatest impacts, however, probably arise during the drilling of the wells, particularly when oil base muds have to be used. So far some 5000 wells have been drilled.
Once in production, the environmental impacts are more limited mainly arising from the flaring of gas, spillage of oil and the discharge of production, drainage and ballast waters from the platform. The amount of oil discharged via these routes is comparatively limited compared to the total volume which enters the sea from other sources.
Numerous monitoring surveys around these installations have shown that the biological and physical effects on the sea are limited and restricted to a fairly small area around the installation.
Lecture B 4
NORTH S E A . P O L I C Y AND P E R S P E C T I V E I r D. Tromp
Hoofdingenieur Directeur Directie Noordzee Rijkswaterstaat
'300 YEAR NORTH SEA"
- CROSSING AND ENVIRONMENT
SEAGOING
SYMPOSIUM
March 15. 1989
MQRIH SEA :
ENVIRONMENT
BETWFFN UK AtjD I H EC O N I U m
Synopsis
NORTH SEA. POLICY AND PERSPECTIVE Author : I r D. T r o m p ,
- Hoofdingenieur-Directeur Directie Noordzee Rijkswaterstaat
The North Sea is not a only rich and productive sea, it is also the most intensively used and navigated sea in the world. Its resources include not only fish, but important minerals such as oil, gas, sand and gravel. In combination these activities have a serious impact on quality of the water and seabed of the North Sea and the creatures living in it.
This presentation will first of all discuss briefly the features and characteristics of the North Sea, give examples of use, abuse, and a diagnosis of the state of the system, describe the staps which have already been taken (inter-)nationally and those which are still needed to safeguard the sea and to prevent its further deterioration. The Third North Sea Ministerial Conference (March 1990) will strike a balance in this process.
Examples will be given of the contributions of key Industrial sectors in the Netherlands and the UK to the reduction of pollution of the sea.
Lecture C 3
SHIP - INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE. DECORATION AND ARTS
Jonkheer Jan Six
Kunst Coördinator ' Koningin Beatrix ' Directeur' Art Promotion ' - Amsterdam
G.J. Doainicus
Account Executive ' Crown Line '
'300 YEAR NORTH SEA"
- CROSSING AND ENVIRONMENT
SEAGOING
SYMPOSIUM
March 13, 1989
Lecture C 4
CATERING AND HOTEL SERVICES ON BOARD THE KONINGIN BEATRIX'
M.A.C. Nieuvpoort
Marine Catering Superintendant' CROWN LINE'
'300 YEAR NORTH SEA*
- CROSSING AND ENVIRONMENT
SEAGOING
SYMPOSIUM
March 13. 1989
C A T E R I N G A N D H O T E L S E R V I C E S ON B O A R D T H E
CROWN LINE
" K O N I N G I N B E A T R I X " MOEK VAN HOLLAND - HARWICHM . A . C . N i e u w p o o r t [ n t r o d u e t i o n r h e Z e e l a n d S t e a m s h i p C o m p a n y i s n o w o p e r a t i n g f o r o v e r 1 0 0 y e a r s . ) r i g i n a l l y t h e s e r v i c e s t a r t e d i n 1 8 7 5 o n t h e F l u s h i n g - S h e e r n e s s r o u t e , i f t e r w o r l d w a r 2 t h e Z e e l a n d s h i p s h a v e b e e n s a i l i n g f r o m H o o k o f H o l l a n d . J p t o 1 9 6 8 , t h e s e r v i c e o n t h a t r o u t e w a s o p e r a t e d b y b o t h S M Z r u n n i n g t h e D a y S e r v i c e s f r o m H o o k t o H a r w i c h a n d v i c e v e r s a a n d B r i t i s h R a i l r u n n i n g ; h e N i g h t S e r v i c e s f r o m H a r w i c h t o H o o k a n d v i c e v e r s a . B o t h c o m p a n i e s o p e r a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y . B o t h , SMZ D a y S e r v i c e v e s s e l s w e r e d e s i g n e d w i t h m a x i m u m a r e a s a l l o c a t e d f o r p u b l i c l o u n g e s , r e s t a u r a n t s a n d b a r s a s t h e r e w a s a v e r y l i m i t e d r e q u i r e m e n t f o r c a b i n a c c o m m o d a t i o n . [ • h e r e w a s a d e m a n d f o r t w o c l a s s v e s s e l s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e 1 9 6 8 a s ; e a t r a v e l w a s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r f o r m o f h o l i d a y a n d b u s i n e s s t r a v e l t o C u r o p e . ihe v e s s e l s w e r e d e s i g n e d w i t h a l a r g e c a r g o c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y a s t h e r e ; e r e r e g u l a r c o n t r a c t s f o r c a r r y i n g R o y a l M a i l a n d p e r i s h a b l e p r o d u c e , a a i n l y v e g e t a b l e s f r o m t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . [ n a d d i t i o n t h e r e w a s a s e a s o n a l d e m a n d f o r p r i v a t e c a r s d u r i n g t h e l o l i d a y p e r i o d s b u t t h e s e w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y c r a n e d o n b o a r d w h i c h w a s i t i m e c o n s u m i n g h a n d l i n g o p e r a t i o n , ) n t h e s e d a y s e r v i c e s t h e r e w a s a s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e p a s s e n g e r : a r r y i n g s a s t h e d a y s e r v i c e s w e r e o n l y p o p u l a r d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g t o i u t u m n h o l i d a y p e r i o d s . B o t h B r i t i s h R a i l v e s s e l s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o c a r r y a m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f c a b i n s a s s e n g e r s f o r t h e o v e r n i g h t c r o s s i n g s . ) n e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h e H a r w i c h - H o o k r o u t e w a s t h e c o n n e c t i n g : r a i n s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d b o t h i n H a r w i c h a n d i n H o o k o f H o l l a n d w i t h v a s t : o n n e c t i n g r a i l s e r v i c e s f o r m a j o r B r i t i s h c i t i e s a n d f o r E u r o p e a n ; a p i t a l s .
