Sed i men tary re cord of the Dukla Ba sin (Outer Carpathians, Slovakia and Po land) and its im pli ca tions for ba sin evo lu tion
Di ana DIRNEROVÁ, Marta PREKOPOVÁ and Juraj JANOÈKO
Dirnerová D., Prekopová M. and Janoèko J. (2012) – Sed i men tary re cord of the Dukla Ba sin (Outer Carpathians, Slovakia and Po land) and its im pli ca tions for ba sin evo lu tion. Geol. Quart., 56 (3): 547–560, doi: 10.7306/gq.1039
The Late Cre ta ceous to Oligocene strata of the Dukla Nappe, which is a part of the accretionary wedge formed in front of the Carpathian orogen, re cord a his tory of the ba sin de vel op ment from rem nant to fore land ba sin stages. The lower part of the suc ces sion in di cates the first stage of ba sin evo lu tion char ac ter ized by turbidite sys tems fed from the E (NE) to W (SW). The sys tem en com passes de pos its of the
£upków and Cisna for ma tions de pos ited in a chan nel-lobe tran si tion (£upków Fm.) and in sand stone-rich channelized lobes (Cisna Fm.) The tran si tional phase is rep re sented by de pos its of the Submenilite For ma tion de rived from two dif fer ent sources (SE and N) and de pos - ited in a sub ma rine slope/ramp en vi ron ment. The third stage of ba sin evo lu tion is marked by the ad vanc ing front of the Carpathian orogen re sult ing in pe riph eral fore land ba sin de vel op ment. In creased tec tonic ac tiv ity led to a switch in sed i ment source from the SE to the NW, more com plex to pog ra phy of the ba sin and a change in sed i ment dis tri bu tion. The ini tial phase of this stage is char ac ter ized by low-den - sity turbidites and sus pen sion fall-out sed i ments of the Menilite Fm. Dis crete tec tonic pulses are re corded by the thick Cergowa sand - stones, mostly de pos ited by hy brid flows and high-den sity tur bid ity cur rents. A de crease in tec tonic ac tiv ity is sug gested by heterolithic de pos its of the Krosno Fm. cap ping the sed i men tary suc ces sion.
Di ana Dirnerová, Marta Prekopová and Juraj Janoèko, In sti tute of Geosciences, Tech ni cal Uni ver sity of Košice, Letná 9, 04001 Slovakia, e-mails: di ana.dirnerova@tuke.sk, marta.prekopova@tuke.sk, juraj.janocko@tuke.sk (re ceived: Oc to ber 12, 2011; ac cepted:
July 17, 2012; first pub lished on line: Sep tem ber 06, 2012).
Key words: Dukla Unit, fa cial anal y sis, deep-ma rine en vi ron ment, sub ma rine fan, ba sin evo lu tion.
INTRODUCTION
New meth od ol o gies and ap proaches in the study of deep ma rine de pos its, in clud ing stud ies of out crops at seis mic scales (e.g., Hurst et al., 1999; Hodgson et al., 2006), seis mic in ves ti - ga tions (Deptuck et al., 2008), lab o ra tory ex per i ments and nu - mer i cal sim u la tions (McCaffrey et al., 2003; Huang et al., 2007) have brought new in sights into pro cess-re sponse mod els that re late the trans port pro cess to the fa cies dis tri bu tion and ge om e try of sed i men tary bod ies. The re sult ing in for ma tion can be not only ap plied to un der stand ing of the evo lu tion of sed i - men tary sys tems and re lated sed i men tary ba sin evo lu tion but also to prospection for new hy dro car bon res er voirs. One of the ben e fits of such stud ies is the pos si bil ity to use com plex mod els in re gions with scarce ex po sures in or der to com plete the miss - ing parts of a “geo log i cal puz zle”.
The main aim of this ar ti cle is to pres ent a de tailed fa cies anal y sis and in ter pre ta tion of depositional en vi ron ments of
strata and to dis cuss the im pli ca tions for the evo lu tion of the Dukla Ba sin in the Outer Carpathian Flysch Belt (Fig. 1).
GEOLOGICAL SETTING, TECTONIC AND PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK The Dukla Nappe, emerg ing at the sur face in south east ern Po land and stretch ing southeastwards across Pol ish and Slovakian ter ri tory to the Ukraine (Fig. 1), rep re sents a part of the the Outer Carpathians tra di tion ally called Outer Flysch Belt in Slovakia. It be longs to the Fore-Magura group of nappes oc - cur ring be tween Magura to the south and the Silesian nappes to the north.
Stratigraphically, the Dukla Unit in the area stud ied com - prises the £upków For ma tion over lain by the Cisna, Submenilite and Menilite for ma tions, which are, in turn, capped by the Krosno For ma tion (e.g., Leško and Sam uel, 1968; Koráb and Ïurkoviè, 1978; Figs. 1 and 2). Older strata have only been found in the Ukraine (e.g., Jankowski et al., 2004).
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The £upków For ma tion (Cenomanian–Paleocene) is char - ac ter ized by a high con tent of mudstones (60–90% ac cord ing to Leško and Sam uel, 1968) and con vo lute lam i nated sand - stones. The vol ume and thick ness of sand stones in creases up - wards. Palaeoflow in di ca tors sug gest a source area lo cated in the E (NE; Koráb and Ïurkoviè, 1978).
The de pos its of the £upków For ma tion grade up wards into the Cisna For ma tion (Senonian–Paleocene) which is characterized by a dom i nance of thick sand stones (up to 6 m) with oc ca sional microconglomerates at their bases (Koráb and Ïurkoviè, 1978). Study of sole marks shows the main palaeoflow di rec tion from the NE to the SW and from the N to the S (Leško and Sam uel, 1968).
The Submenilite For ma tion (Eocene) is de fined as a fin ing up wards suc ces sion of al ter nat ing sand stone and mudstone beds that con tain many ichnofossils (Koráb and Ïurkoviè, 1978). Koráb and Ïurkoviè (1978) de scribed two palaeoflow di rec tions; a main lon gi tu di nal di rec tion from the SE to wards the NW and a mi nor, lat eral di rec tion from the N (NE) to wards the S (SW). The sand stones de pos ited by dif fer ent palaeoflows have dif fer ent min er al og i cal com po si tions in di cat ing di verse source ar eas.
The fin est de pos its are rep re sented by the Menilite For ma - tion (Early Oligocene) mostly com posed of mudstones and menilite type claystones with mi nor oc cur rence of sand stones and pelocarbonates (Koráb and Ïurkoviè, 1978). This
fine-grained unit con tains sev eral thick (from 5 to 50 m) sand - stone in ter vals (e.g., Mszanka Sand stone, Cergowa Sand stone, Metresa Bed; Leško and Sam uel, 1968; Koráb and Ïurkoviè, 1978; Œl¹czka and Walton, 1992).
The sed i men tary suc ces sion is ter mi nated by the Krosno For - ma tion (Oligocene) char ac ter ized by heterolithic de pos its. The clastic ma te rial of the fine-grained sand stones was de liv ered to the Dukla Ba sin from the NW (Œl¹czka and Kaminski, 1998).
The de pos its are gen er ally con sid ered to have been de pos - ited in a rem nant ocean ba sin trans formed into a pe riph eral fore land ba sin re lated to the evo lu tion of the Carpathian orogen in the Late Eocene–Early Oligocene (Oszczypko, 1999;
Poprawa et al., 2002; Golonka et al., 2011).
Two dif fer ent phases were rec og nized dur ing the palaeogeographic evo lu tion of Dukla Ba sin. Un til the end of the Late Cre ta ceous and the be gin ning of the Paleogene the Dukla Ba sin was a part of the Magura Ba sin (Cieszkowski, 2002; Oszczypko, 2006; Malata and Poprawa, 2006; Pszonka, 2009). Com mu ni ca tion be tween the bas ins is shown by sim i lar - i ties of the £upków and Cisna for ma tions in the Dukla Unit and the Inoceramus Beds in the Magura Unit (Œl¹czka, 1971;
Golonka et al., 2000; Cieszkowski 2002). At this time, the Silesian and Bukowiec Palaeo-Ridges sep a rated the Magura and Dukla realm from the Silesian Ba sin to the north (Œl¹czka, 2005). Ac cord ing to B¹k and Wolska (2005) the east ern part of the Dukla Ba sin was bor dered by a prom on tory of the Marmarosh Mas sif that sup plied sed i ments that now com prise the Cisna For ma tion dur ing the Paleocene.
Dur ing the Eocene and Oligocene, the emerg ing Grybów Palaeo-Ridge re sulted in at least par tial sep a ra tion of the Dukla and Magura bas ins (e.g., Ondra and Hanák, 1989; Cieszkowski, 2002). How ever, the sub sid ing Silesian Palaeo-Ridge fa cil i tated com mu ni ca tion be tween the Dukla and Silesian bas ins at that time (e.g., Œl¹czka and Walton, 1992; Cieszkowski, 2002). Rel a - tive sea level fall as a re sult of eustasy and tec ton ics (e.g., Poprawa et al., 2002; Oszczypko et al., 2002; Oszczypko, 2006;
Soták, 2010) around the Priabonian Rupelian bound ary (e.g., Oszczypko, 1999; Oszczypko et al., 2002; Poprawa et al., 2002;
Golonka et al., 2003) con trolled palaeo geo graphi cal changes in - flu enc ing wa ter cir cu la tion, with re sult ing de po si tion now mostly rep re sented by fine-grained strata of the Menilite For ma - tion, typ i cal of a larger part of the Outer Carpathian realm (e.g., Oszczypko et al., 2002).
The pres ent-day po si tion of the Dukla Nappe is a re sult of Late Oligocene to Early Mio cene tec tonic events (Oszczypko et al., 2002; Golonka et al., 2003; Oszczypko-Clowes and Oszczypko, 2004; Nemèok et al., 2006), re sult ing in de tach - ment of the Late Cre ta ceous to Oligocene strata from their sub - strate and their re moval to wards the N and NE (e.g., Nemèok et al., 2006; Oszczypko, 2006).
LOCALIZATION OF STUDY AREA
Six sed i men tary pro files of strata be long ing to the Dukla Unit with a to tal length of 757 m were ana lysed “bed-by-bed”
on the Slovakian (5) and Pol ish (1) ter ri to ries (Fig. 1). The first three pro files lie close to the dam at Starina (8 km NE of Snina, NE Slovakia, Fig. 1) and amount to 502 m in thick ness. Pro -
Fig. 2. Strati graphic col umn of the Dukla Unit in the area stud ied
file 1 re cords strata of the Cisna, Submenilite and Menilite for - ma tions ex posed along the main road from Stakèín to Príslop.
The strata of pro files 2 and 3 crop out on the right and left sides of the dam, re spec tively and com prise a suc ces sion of Submenilite For ma tion over ly ing the up per most part of the Cisna For ma tion. The fourth pro file is lo cated along the main road be tween Runina and Topo¾a (23 km from Snina, NE Slovakia, Fig. 1) and com prises 125 m of strata as signed to the
£upków, Cisna and Submenilite for ma tions. Around the vil - lages of Zboj and Ulièské Krivé the fifth, 15 m long pro file oc - curs and shows strata of the Submenilite For ma tion. A 115 m
thick suc ces sion (pro file 6) be long ing to the Menilite and Krosno for ma tions oc curs 25 km S of Sanok in Po land (Fig. 1).
The sec tions de scribed pro vide the best ex po sures of the Dukla Unit and were used for de tailed bed-by-bed log ging with a res o lu tion of 1 cm. Where pos si ble, lat eral trends of fa cies were doc u mented. Fa cies de scrip tions and in ter pre ta tions are given in Ta ble 1 and Fig ures 3, 4 and 5. In ter pre ta tion is given of depositional pro cesses of the fa cies as so ci a tions dis tin - guished and in ter pre ta tion of the depositional en vi ron ment is made (see Ta ble 2 and Fig. 6).
T a b l e 1 Sed i men tary fa cies dis tin guished in the study area with their de scrip tions and in ter pre ta tions of depositional pro cess
Fig. 3. Pho tos of fa cies and fa cies as so ci a tions de scribed in the Cergowa Beds (pro file 1)
A – debrite (fa cies D1) – note the thin bed of sand stone at its base (ar row). Flute casts at the base in di cate its de po si tion from tur bu lent flow, which cre ated a scour later filled by debrite; B, C – linked debrites con sist ing of mas sive and nor mally graded sand stone at the base, capped by debrites. The debrite in Fig ure 3 is capped by par al lel-lam i nated fine sand stone with al ter na tion of darker and lighter laminae sug gest ing seg re ga tion of clay ag gre gates; D – mas sive sand stone with dis - persed mudstone clasts (fa cies D2), the ar rows mark the shear bands formed dur ing the freez ing of sed i ment; E – thick amal - gam ated beds of mas sive sand stone with dis persed mudstone clasts (fa cies D2) – close-up show ing the com po si tion of the sand stones; F – mas sive sand stone with float ing mudstone clasts (fa cies Sm), ar rows mark sand stone top bed in jec tion of mud re sult ing from rip-down of the over ly ing mud and mudstone clasts de pos ited by con tin u ous aggradation from high-den sity tur bid ity cur rents; G – de posit of low-den sity tur bid ity cur rents with di vi sions of the Bouma se quence; H – menilite-type claystones (fa cies Me), the black col our is due to high or ganic ( >4%) con tent
Fig. 4. Sim pli fied composited sed i men tary pro files of the £upków (pro file 4), Cisna (pro files 1 and 3) and Submenilite (pro files 1 and 3) for ma tions
A – rhyth mic al ter na tion of thin beds of sand stone and mudstone in ter preted as interlobe de pos its, pass ing up wards into thick sand stones in di - cat ing channelized lobes; B – hummocky cross-strat i fied sand stone whose or i gin is re lated to the in ter face be tween the flow and am bi ent wa - ter; C – the ichnofossil Nereites as one of the in di ca tors of a deep-wa ter en vi ron ment; for ex pla na tion of fa cies codes see Ta ble 1
Fig. 5. Sim pli fied com pos ite sed i men tary pro files of the Menilite (pro files 1 and 6) and Krosno (pro file 6) for ma tions A – thick channelized sand stones of the Metresa Bed; B – synsedimentary fold; C – fa cies as so ci a tion C2. The fault throw is in di - cated by beds marked by let ters a,b,c; D – palaeoflow in di ca tors at the bases of Cergowa sand stone beds sug gest grad ual de vi a tion of the flow due to lo cal to pog ra phy; E – two per pen dic u lar palaeoflow di rec tions of the Cergowa sand stones (ar rows) re sult ing from dis sected to pog ra phy of the ba sin floor; for ex pla na tions see Fig ure 4
SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS The sed i men tary suc ces sion stud ied con sists of debrites, sand stones and mudstones with vary ing net-to-gross ra tio, to - gether with ichnofacies and foraminifera as sem blages sug gest dif fer ent po si tions in a turbidite sys tem and re lated deep-wa ter en vi ron ment in the evolv ing Dukla Ba sin dur ing the Paleocene to Oligocene interval. Based on general in di ca tors of palaeobathymetry, we here use the term “deep-wa ter deposits”
for the sed i ments de pos ited be low storm-wave base.
Bed-by-bed de scrip tion of the suc ces sion re vealed 11 lithofacies based on grain size and sed i men tary struc tures (Ta - ble 1 and Fig. 3): the debrites are rep re sented by (1) ma trix-sup - ported con glom er ates com posed of peb ble- to cob ble-sized mudstone clasts within a sand stone ma trix and (2) me - dium-grained sand stones with oc ca sional gran ule-sized mudstone clasts. The sand stone fa cies in cludes (1) mas sive, fine- to me dium-grained sand stone and mas sive sand stone with cha ot i cally dis persed gran ule-sized mudstone clasts; (2) nor -
mally graded me dium- to fine-grained sand stone; (3) fine-grained sand stones with var i ous trac tion struc tures and (4) con vo lute lam i nated sand stone. The mudstone fa cies is com - posed of mas sive, par al lel and rip ple lam i nated mudstones. A spe cific fa cies, oc cur ring in the up per part of the suc ces sion stud ied, is menilite-type claystone (Ta ble 1).
The sed i ments ana lysed were de pos ited by sev eral pro - cesses as sug gested by the in di vid ual fa cies and by the fa cies as so ci a tions (Ta ble 2). Hence, we were able to rec og nize the fol low ing de posit types:
DEPOSITS OF DEBRIS FLOWS
Me dium-grained, mud-rich sand stone with cha ot i cally dis - trib uted mudstone clasts are in ter preted as the prod uct of co he - sive de bris flows. The mudstone clasts var ies from 0.5 to 10 cm across, and are of ten con torted. The base of de bris flow beds is sharp and loaded with com mon flame structures.
T a b l e 2 Fa cies and fa cies as so ci a tions dis tin guished in the sed i men tary re cord ana lysed
with their de scrip tions and in ter pre ta tions
For ex pla na tion of fa cies codes see Ta ble 1
DEPOSITS OF HYBRID FLOWS
These de pos its are char ac ter ized by cou plets of mas sive or nor mally graded sand stone over lain by me dium-grained sand - stone con tain ing small mudstone clasts (debrite). This cou plet may rarely be over lain by par al lel lam i nated fine sand stone show ing al ter na tions of darker and lighter laminae, thus com - pris ing trip lets of sand stone – debrite – sand stone (e.g., McCaffrey and Kneller, 2001; Haughton et al., 2009; Fig. 3).
Or ganic mat ter is com mon on the bed ding planes of the up per sand stones. The en tire as so ci a tion is sandwiched be tween mudstone. The mas sive and graded sand stones have sharp or loaded bases with wa ter es cape struc tures (flame struc tures) and a dis tinct bound ary with the over ly ing debrite.
The de pos its de scribed are in ter preted as de pos its of hy brid flows (e.g., Haughton et al., 2003) con sist ing of high-den sity turbidite sand stone at the base, over ly ing linked debrite, which is, in turn, capped by low-den sity turbidite sand stone (e.g., Ito, 2008; Fe lix et al., 2009; Prit chard and Glad stone, 2009). The mas sive or graded sand stone at the base is cor re lated with the H1 di vi sion of Haughton et al. (2009), while the over ly ing
debrite and lam i nated fine sand stone cor re sponds with H3 and H4 di vi sions, re spec tively.
Sim i lar hy brid beds are rec og nized widely at the dis tal and lat eral mar gins of turbidite sys tems (Haughton et al., 2009).
The com mon as so ci a tion with abun dant car bo na ceous mat ter in di cates prob a ble link age to the contemporaneous shelf.
DEPOSITS OF HIGH-DENSITY TURBIDITY CURRENTS
The de pos its of high den sity tur bid ity cur rents (ac cord ing to Lowe, 1982) are rep re sented by three fa cies as so ci a tions. The first as so ci a tion, C1, con sists of mas sive sand stone with dis - persed mudstone clasts over lain by thin beds of par al lel-lam i - nated mudstone. The sand stone to mudstone ra tio is 12:1. The base of the sand stone beds is sharp, scoured or loaded and fre - quently shows a va ri ety of sole marks. The beds are of ten amal - gam ated, build ing bedsets up to 9 m thick.
The de pos its de scribed are in ter preted as prod ucts of high-den sity tur bid ity cur rents due to wide spread sole marks in di cat ing tur bu lence (e.g., Hodgson, 2009). The massive
Fig. 6. Evo lu tion of the Dukla Ba sin based on the de pos its analysed
A – first stage of evo lu tion in ter preted as a rem nant ocean ba sin with de po si tion of high- to low-den sity turbidites in a chan nel-lobe tran si tion (£upków Fm.) and channelized lobe (Cisna Fm.); B – tran si tional stage from rem nant ocean to pe riph eral fore land ba sin with de po si tion of the Submenilite Fm. from two dif fer ent sources; C – third stage of evo lu tion re corded by the Menilite Fm. de pos ited in a pe riph eral fore land ba sin. Fines rep re sent a starved phase of ba sin evo lu tion, and the Cergowa sand stones are in ter preted as seismoturbidites rep re sent ing seis mic/tec tonic ac tiv ity
struc ture of the sand stones re sults from sup pres sion of tur bu - lence most prob a bly when tur bu lent flow slowed e.g., due to a hy drau lic jump at a change in slope an gle (Talling et al., 2007) or as a re sult of ero sional bulk ing as sug gested by the small mudstone clasts dis persed in the sand stones (e.g., Ricci Lucchi and Valmori, 1980; Talling et al., 2004). Thin caps of par al - lel-lam i nated mudstone re veal sub se quent deposition from following di lute turbidites.
The sec ond as so ci a tion, C2, is char ac ter ized by thick-bed - ded mas sive or nor mally graded sand stone, or by con vo - lute-lam i nated sand stone over lain by par al lel-lam i nated sand - stone and mudstone. The base of beds is sharp, scoured and loaded. Beds are of ten amal gam ated with a mean thick ness of 3.2 m; how ever, the thick ness may reach 10 m lo cally. The mean sand stone to mudstone ratio is 5:1.
The as so ci a tion is in ter preted as a tur bid ity cur rent de posit due to basal scours and sole marks in di cat ing flow tur bu lence, nor mal grad ing and trac tional struc tures at the top of the suc - ces sion. The thick mas sive sand stone in ter val at the base of the suc ces sion sug gests high flow con cen tra tion and prob a bly is an a logous to the S3 in ter val of high-den sity tur bid ity currents described by Lowe (1982).
DEPOSITS OF LOW-DENSITY TURBIDITY CURRENTS
The de pos its of low-den sity tur bid ity cur rents are char ac - ter ized by an as so ci a tion of fine- to me dium-grained sand stone pass ing into mudstone, and mostly rep re sented by heterolithic de pos its. The sand stone shows a wide range of trac tional struc - tures from par al lel-lam i nated, rip ple/trough-cross-lam i nated and con vo lute-lam i nated ones. The over ly ing mudstone is rip - ple- and/or par al lel-lam i nated. The sandstone to mudstone ra tio is 2:1 to 1:5. The mean thick ness of strata in the as so ci a tion is 4 m with a maximum of 25 m.
The abun dance of trac tional struc tures points to de po si tion by turbiditic curents with pres er va tion of Bouma Tb, c and d di - vi sions (Bouma, 1962; Hiscott et al., 1997).
HEMITURBIDITES AND HEMIPELAGITES/PELAGITES
These de pos its are rep re sented by brown ish dark to black claystone in clud ing black, hard, fis sile and si li ceous claystone with a high or ganic con tent (menilite) and mas sive and/or par - al lel-lam i nated mudstone. The strata de scribed are lo cally in - ter rupted by thin beds of par al lel-lam i nated fine- to me - dium-grained sand stones.
The tex ture and struc ture of these beds sug gest de po si tion by sus pen sion fall-out and and hemiturbidites. The few thin beds of sand stone are thought to have been de pos ited by low-den sity turbidites.
INTERPRETATION OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
The sed i men tary sec tion ana lysed is one of the best pre - served sec tions in the Dukla Unit show ing the suc ces sion of the ba sin fill from the base to the top. The geo log i cal back ground
(e.g., Koráb and Ïurkoviè, 1978; Oszczypko, 1999; Malata and Poprawa, 2006), sed i mentary struc tures, ichnofossil in di - ces (Uchman et al., 2006) and palaeobathymetry de fined on the base of foraminiferal as sem blages (Olszewska and Malata, 2006) strongly sug gest de po si tion in a tur bid ite sys tem de vel - oped in the range of outer shelf (?) to abys sal zones.
The sec tion stud ied starts with the up per most part of the
£upków For ma tion (Cenomanian–Paleocene), which mainly con sists of high- and low-den sity tur bid ity de pos its (Fig. 4).
The sand stone beds with oc ca sional scoured and fluted beds show sev eral up wards thick en ing cy cles sev eral metres thick con sist ing of thin (5–10 cm) beds at the base and me dium-thick (40 cm) beds at the top. The sand stone to mudstone ra tio is 3:1.
Flutes on the base of the sand stone in di cate a palaeoflow di rec - tion from E(NE) to W(SW).
Thin- and me dium-thick sand stone beds de pos ited by high- and low-den sity tur bid ity cur rents, ero sional fea tures such as scours and flutes and thick en ing-up wards cy cles in di cate de po - si tion at the chan nel-lobe tran si tion with an over all progradational trend (Postma et al., 2009). Me dium- to coarse-grained sand stones, in places con tain ing gran ules at the base and con vo lute lam i na tion, sug gest high com pe tence of the cur rents and high sed i men ta tion rates. Such con di tions can be as sumed to oc cur in a chan nel-lobe transitional area.
The in ter val of up ward thick en ing cy cles of sand stone beds sep a rated by mudstones (£upków Fm.) passes up wards into sand ier de pos its be long ing to the Cisna For ma tion (Senonian–Paleocene, Figs. 1 and 4). The in ter val is typ i fied by pre dom i nant me dium- to coarse-grained, thick, of ten scoured sand stone beds. The palaeoflow di rec tions based on flute marks are from NE to SW. The fre quently amal gam ated sand - stone beds with a max i mum mea sured thick ness of 12 m are sep a rated by thin mudstone in ter vals. The sand stones are mostly mas sive or built of a suc ces sion of mas sive/nor mal graded, par al lel- and con vo lute-lam i nated in ter vals (Bouma Ta, b, c di vi sions), where the up per in ter val of trac tional struc - tures is rarely re placed by hummocky-cross strat i fi ca tion (Fig. 4). Foraminiferal as sem blages show de po si tion in the lower bathyal zone (e.g., Oszczypko, 2004; Uchman et al., 2006).
The thick, fre quently scoured sand stone beds, amal gam - ation and mas sive sand stones sug gest de po si tion by high-den - sity tur bid ity cur rents close to the channelized part of a turbidite sys tem. The oc cur rence of struc tures re sem bling hummocky-cross strat i fi ca tion are thought to be a re sult of up-cur rent mi grat ing waves (antidunes) trig gered by high-en - ergy tur bid ity cur rents that are com mon close to main tur bid ity cur rent con duits (e.g., Mulder et al., 2009).
The sandy in ter val of the Cisna For ma tion passes into thin (3–7 cm) sand stone beds al ter nat ing with mudstones (Fig. 4) as signed to the Submenilite For ma tion (Eocene). The tran si tion be tween thick sand stone beds of the Cisna For ma tion and the over ly ing strata of the Submenilite For ma tion is grad ual and marked by an in crease in mudstone beds. The sand - stone:mudstone ra tio var ies from 2:1 in the lower part to 1:5 in the up per part. The sand stone shows mostly Tb, c, d di vi sions of Bouma sug gest ing de po si tion mainly by low-den sity tur bid - ity cur rents (Lowe, 1988). The suc ces sion con tains the Nereites and Ophiomorpha rudis ichnofacies.
De po si tion by low-den sity tur bid ity cur rents and thin sand - stone beds al ter nat ing with mudstones are typ i cal of the dis tal en vi ron ment in a turbidite sys tem (e.g., Remacha and Fernandez, 2003) or of on intrafan en vi ron ment (e.g., Hodgson, 2009). How ever, ev i dence for grad ual shallowing based on the foraminiferal as sem blages (Olszewska, 1984;
Uchman et al., 2006) may also be sug gest ing de po si tion on a sub ma rine slope/ramp af ter shut-down of the source of the sand-prone turbidite sys tem of the Cisna For ma tion. The vary - ing sand stone:mudstone ra tio in the sec tion stud ied prob a bly re flects changes in sed i ment sup ply due to shift of deltaic lobes on a shelf, ir reg u lar tec tonic ac tiv ity and climate changes (Leszczyñski, 1996).
Al ter nat ing sand stones and mudstones of the Submenilite For ma tion grad u ally pass into a 150 m thick suc ces sion of mudstones, menilitic cherts and fine-grained sand stones. These de pos its rep re sent the Menilite For ma tion (Early Oligocene) with the sand stone-rich mem ber of the Cergowa Beds. The fine-grained part of the for ma tion con tains 4 to 7.1 m thick in - ter vals of or ganic-rich, dark menilite-type claystones sep a rated by in ter vals of pale to dark gray mudstone and thin fine-grained sand stone beds. These sed i ments sand wich a 50 m thick in ter - val of Cergowa sand stones. They are char ac ter ized by al ter na - tions of thick-bed ded, amal gam ated and of ten scoured me - dium-grained sand stones and dark mudstones and black menilites show ing an up wards thin ning trend. In the lower part of the in ter val the sand stones are mostly mas sive and con tain scat tered small mudstone clasts. There are a few sand stone – debrite – sand stone trip lets in di cat ing hy brid flows. Up wards, this suc ces sion is grad u ally re placed by fine-grained sand - stones show ing trac tional struc tures. The sand stone to mudstone ra tio changes from 4:1 to 1:2 as the Cergowa sand - stones passes into the menilite shales. Fre quent sole marks in di - cate a palaeoflow di rec tion from NW to SE with mi nor flutes sug gest ing flow from NE to SW. The sand stones are lo cally de - formed by synsedimentary faults and folds (Fig. 5) cross ing part of the sed i men tary suc ces sion. At the base of the sand - stones the ichnofossil Scolicia was found.
The lower part of the suc ces sion, con sist ing of mudstones and thin beds of sand stone, re flects quiet hemipelagic/pe lagic de po si tion oc ca sion ally in ter rupted by low-den sity turbidites.
The thick sand stone beds of he Cergowa sand stones re cord in - creased tec tonic ac tiv ity re lated to the ad vanc ing orogen (e.g., Oszczypko and Oszczypko-Clowes, 2009). The com mon as so - ci a tion with abun dant car bo na ceous mat ter in di cates prob a ble link age to the con tem po ra ne ous shelf (e.g., Haughton et al., 2009). This is also sup ported by the oc cur rence of thick, of ten amal gam ated sand stones with loaded bases sug gest ing high sed i ment in put and prox im ity to the source area. The thick sand stone beds are in ter ca lated with menilite cherts in ter preted as con densed ho ri zons. Their pres ence could rep re sent sig nif i - cant in ter vals of time dur ing which the turbidite path ways on the slopes were steep ened by fault ing (e.g., Fugelli and Olsen, 2007). A similar suc ces sion in the Dukla Unit, in ter preted as a seismoturbidite, was de scribed by Œl¹czka and Walton (1992).
The fin ing-up ward trend of the whole suc ces sion may be in ter - preted as grad ual smooth ing of the equi lib rium pro file that had been dis rupted by an ear lier tec tonic event, re sult ing in grad ual
re plac ing of of high-density turbidity currents and hybrid flow deposits by deposits of low-density turbidity currents.
The menilite shales are over lain by heterolithic of de pos its the Krosno For ma tion (Oligocene) that ter mi nates the sed i - men tary suc ces sion of the Dukla Unit. The for ma tion is char - ac ter ized by thin-bed ded, par al lel-, rip ple- and trough cross-lam i nated sand stones al ter nat ing with thin to me dium par al lel-lam i nated mudstone beds. The sand stone to mudstone ra tio is about 1:2.
Thin sand stone beds with trac tional struc tures over lain by mudstones rep re sent the Tb, c, d in ter val of Bouma se quences de pos ited by low-den sity tur bid ity currents.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
It is generally ac cepted that the Outer Carpathian bas ins dur ing their his tory rep re sented con stit u ents of dis tinct, but ge - net i cally con sec u tive bas ins (e.g., Oszczypko, 1999;
Oszczypko et al., 2002; Golonka et al., 2003). The Cre ta ceous, Paleocene and Eocene strata are gen er ally in ter preted as sed i - ments de pos ited in a rem nant oce anic ba sin while the Oligocene sed i ments were de pos ited in a fore land ba sin that opened dur ing the ad vance of the Carpathian orogen (e.g., Oszczypko, 1999, 2006; Golonka et al., 2011). The fi nal phase of de po si tion oc curred in wedge-top bas ins in some places (e.g., Oszczypko et al., 2002).
Based on the sed i men tary re cord in the suc ces sion stud ied we in ter pret the fol low ing stages in the evo lu tion of the Dukla Ba sin:
FIRST STAGE
The first stage is re corded by de pos its of the £upków and Cisna for ma tions (Fig. 6). The base of the sed i men tary suc ces - sion re corded is typ i fied by thick en ing-up ward in ter vals of sand stones sep a rated by mudstones, grad u ally pass ing to thick-bed ded sand stones. The lower in ter val of high- to low-den sity turbidites de pos ited in a chan nel-lobe tran si tion zone (£upków For ma tion) and in the form of channelized lobes (Cisna For ma tion) im plies progradation of the depositional sys tem. Sources of these ma te rial lay to the NE and E of the ba - sin, thus in di cat ing the north-east prom on tory of the Marmarosh Mas sif (B¹k and Wolska, 2005) as well as the Bukowiec Palaeo-Ridge (in the case of the Cisna For ma tion, Œl¹czka, 2005) as their pos si ble source.
SECOND STAGE
Lobes of the Cisna For ma tion were over lain by thin ning- and fin ing-up wards strata of the Submenilite For ma tion de - pos ited by low- and, to lesser amount by high-den sity tur bid - ity cur rents (Fig. 6). Two per pen dic u lar palaeoflow di rec tions (dom i nant SE to NW and mi nor N and NE to S and SW) re - corded by Koráb and Ïurkoviè (1978) as well as dif fer ent sand stone min er al og i cal com po si tions (Koráb and Ïurkoviè, 1978) in di cate two depositional sys tems fed from dif fer ent sources. Shallowing of the en vi ron ment in di cated by
foraminiferal as sem blages (Olszewska, 1984) sug gests de po - si tion on a sub ma rine slope/ramp. The change in sed i ment in - put and shallowing prob a bly re sults from in creased tec tonic ac tiv ity con nected with a new source area emerg ing be tween the Dukla and Magura bas ins (the Grybów Palaeo-Ridge, Cieszkowski, 2002).
THIRD STAGE
The third stage is char ac ter ized by de po si tion of dark to black mudstones of the Menilite For ma tion in the Early Oligocene (Fig. 6), dur ing which sig nif i cant changes of rel a tive sea level took place as a re sult of eustatic fluc tu a tion and tec - tonic ac tiv ity (e.g., Oszczypko, 1999; Oszczypko et al., 2002;
Poprawa et al., 2002; Golonka et al., 2003). The black mudstones con tain ing much or ganic ma te rial sug gest hemipelagic/pe lagic and hemiturbidite sed i men ta tion in anoxic con di tions (Bessereau et al., 1996) re sult ing from sea level fall and re lated iso la tion of the ba sin. This quiet sed i men ta tion changed abruptly, as re corded by the thick-bed ded Cergowa sand stones in ter preted as seismoturbidites (Fig. 6). The main NW to SE di rec tion of palaeoflows trans port ing coarser-grained sed i ments in di cates that the pos si ble source of the ma te rial was the ac ti vated thrust belt of the Carpathian orogen (Silesian Palaeo-Ridge?). Fi nally, low-den sity tur bid ity cur rents en tered the ba sin from the same di rec tion and de pos - ited the youn gest synorogenic sed i ments of the unit ter mi nated by the Krosno For ma tion. We as sume that the in creased tec -
tonic ac tiv ity is linked with the zip ping of the subduction zone be tween the Carpathians and the ad ja cent Eu ro pean plat form.
Based on this, we sug gest that: ( 1) the sed i ments of
£upków and Cisna For ma tion were de pos ited in con di tions of a clos ing rem nant ba sin; (2) the sed i ments of the Submenilite For ma tion, with a bi po lar palaeoflow di rec tion, rep re sent a tran si tional phase be tween the rem nant ba sin and the pe riph eral fore land ba sin and (3) de po si tion of Menilite and Krosno Fm. is as so ci ated with pe riph eral fore land ba sin that orig i nated due to ad vance of the Carpathian orogen (Oszczypko, 1999; Poprawa et al., 2002; Golonka et al., 2011). This phase was char ac ter - ized by pe ri ods of quiet sed i men ta tion re lated to ba sin iso la tion and sub se quent cir cu la tion slow down (“menilitic de po si tion”) in ter rupted by de po si tion of thick-bed ded sand stones trig gered by seis mic events re lated to growth of the thrust belt in the hin - ter land of the Carpathian orogen front (de pos its of Cergowa sand stone in the area stud ied and the Metresa Bed of Œl¹czka and Walton, 1992). Terminal sed i men ta tion is rep re sented by thin-bed ded, low-den sity turbidites of the Krosno For ma tion.
Ac knowl edg ments. We are grate ful to N. Oszczypko and T. Malata for their con struc tive com ments, which have greatly im proved this pa per. Spe cial thanks go to T. Peryt for his ed i to - rial ef forts. The pa per was writ ten thanks to the sup port of the Op er a tion Pro gram Re search and De vel op ment for Pro ject 26220220031, co-fi nanced from the re sources of the Eu ro pean Foun da tion of Re gional De vel op ment.
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