Based on the aforementioned subchapters, it becomes clear that webcomics require their readers to approach them in a way that differs from their printed counterparts-webcomics are not read in the same way as printed comics. The digital/print binary is not alien to academia; in fact, Lukas Wilde (2015) considers the difference between analogue and digital one of the leading features in media history (p. 1). It is important to recognize this difference as it provides valuable context for the discussion of webcomic translation, especially when combined with the discussion of the history and definition of webcomics as well as their placement within a standard comics taxonomy. At the same time, one should not fall into the trap of obsessing in detail about the differences or quality of printed and digital works. An acknowledgment of differences is adequate for an appropriate analysis; the aim should not be to emphasize the differences between webcomics and their printed counterparts, neither to promote a kind of technological determinism where one form is better than the other- an approach that has been common since the first appearance of webcomics.
Back in the early 2000’s, McCloud emphasized how vastly different webcomics were from printed comics; the reality was such that this claim proved to be somewhat wide of the mark.
Furthermore, enhanced webcomics also failed to emerge over all other graphic novel forms, as was assumed by McCloud and other reviewers at the time. As Karin Kukkonen (2013) points out in her segment on webcomics in The Johns Hopkins Guide to Digital Media, “The expectation of a radical innovation of the way comics tell their stories has not been borne out, however, and most web comics either concern themselves with issues close to web user communities (. . .) or place themselves firmly in the tradition of the newspaper strip” (p. 523). Kukkonen’s statement remains a compelling line in the sand, as webcomics are flourishing within established formats and also tend to focus on certain communities. Kukkonen (2013) also notes that webcomics based firmly in traditional print formats continue to prevail, such as the strip or the classic comic page (p. 523). At the same time, new and homogenized webcomic publishing platforms are being created, such as Marvel and DC’s dedicated digital comic platforms, or the Stela mobile comic app (Brown, 2015), while older ones are being modified, such as Line Webtoon, in order to accommodate the growing number of independent creators (Kim, 2016). It for this reason that webcomics belonging to Batinić’s enhanced type should be taken into consideration, as they continue to be just as important for translation discourse as non-enhanced webcomics. While enhanced webcomics are not as
prolific as digitized comics, or webcomics presented in a traditional print format, they are important for the electronic literature canon.
Because of this emerging variety of forms, caution is needed when analyzing digital works, be it in the case of webcomics or any other kind of electronic literature. In fact, Espen J. Aarseth (1997) himself in his book Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature, warned against placing too much importance on the print-digital binary, noting that many academics fell into the trap of presenting new media as radically different, which in turn overpowered academic discussion (p.
14). Aarseth’s warning alluded mostly to electronic literature that was the subject of scholarly attention at the time, such as hyperfiction or automated poetry. It was an admonition that was brought about by a specific context, which was the appearance of Michael Joyce’s famous hyperfiction title afternoon, a story in 1987 (and subsequent publishing in 1990), and the rise of programs allowing for the writing of hyperfiction. Due to this, a vocal school of thought emerged where printed literature began to be perceived as archaic and digital literature as a gradually growing replacement for the printed medium. A notable representative of such thought was Robert Coover (1992), who in his article “The End of Books”, talked about the demise of the “novel” and the vast difference of experiencing electronic literature (in this case hyperfiction) and “traditional literature”, indirectly implying that traditionally published literature offered a poorer experience than the modern, digital one.
It is interesting to note that such discourse has now become milder; current academia does not tend to fall into extreme binaries favoring either printed or digital over the other. For instance, Wilde (2015) recommends observation and the study of discourse pertaining to new media and the print/digital binary instead of directly engaging with it (p. 9). On the other hand, Tanner (2014) concludes that digital books are convenient and can aid in preservation and accessibility efforts, but that printed books are most beneficial for cognitive learning (pp. 9-10). In similar vein, Pisarski (2020) talks about the unsatisfactory digital edition of Mickiewicz’s Crimean Sonnets, and notes that while such efforts can ensure longevity, an object-oriented criticism19 should be applied in order to recreate authorial vision (pp. 91-94). Even Rhett Davis (2018) in his largely pro-print media article concedes that print is not enough to represent certain stories and creative ventures (p. 12).
Therefore, current academic discourse seems to focus on the advantages and disadvantages of the print/digital binary, as well as defining features and influence on both old and new media.20 Naturally, such discourse extends to the realm of print vs. non-print comics. A simple example is a recent interview with webcomic author Kel McDonald (2014), who was asked about the differences between authoring printed comics and webcomics (Alverson, 2014).
As can be noted, such questions and comparisons are common not just for webcomics, but
19 This approach is expanded upon further on pp. 40, 125 of this thesis.
20 Julia Panko’s newest book, Out of Print: Mediating Information in the Novel and the Book (2020) discusses the titular form in print while taking into consideration the proliferation of the digital medium.
for electronic literature in general. In her well-known book, Electronic Literature: New Horizons for the Literary, Katherine Hayles (2008) talks about readers: “coming to digital work with expectations formed by print (. . .) print conventions, print literary modes” (p. 4). Hayles (2008) goes on to discuss how electronic literature tends to build on these expectations, modifying and reworking them to fit the medium (p. 4). Similar discourse appears in her book Writing Machines, where the difference of the printed and digital medium is at the base of her discussion on digital text types (Hayles, 2002). Thus, it becomes clear that it is hard to analyze a digital work without at least bringing up a traditionally printed counterpart, notably because electronic literature has its roots in printed literature and draws its inspiration from it, as will be seen on the basis of the translation analysis of examples contained within this thesis.
Aside from the print-digital binary, academics have additionally considered the role of the reader when interacting with new media vs. printed, traditional literature. In their article on hypertext, Astrid Ensslin and Lyle Skains (2017) address how a rising third wave of scholarship regarding digital fiction has begun to focus on the readers of electronic literature, noting that:
“empirical reader response studies [are being conducted] to develop an understanding of how readers process for example nonlinear, multimodal and ludic structures.” Such an approach is a crucial one, as when studying digital fiction, or in this case, webcomics, the metaphorical reader of such works will not interact with the same way as with printed comics. Aarseth himself already understood the importance of considering the reader when describing works functioning in the digital realm, going as far as to coin the terms “cybertext” and “ergodic literature” in order to describe works created with the help of computers. Cybertext is a neologism, and Aarseth (1997) defines it as follows: “the concept of cybertext focuses on the mechanical organization of the text, by positing the intricacies of the medium as an integral part of the literary exchange” (p. 1). It is important to mention here that Aarseth (1997) notes that the concept is not limited to “computer-driven textuality” (p. 1), as he does not want it to be a concept entirely closed off to printed literature. Still, the term arose from the need to accommodate appearing electronic literature, and more importantly, its readers: “[cybertext] also centers attention on the consumer, or user, of the text, as a more integrated figure” (Aarseth, 1997, p. 1).
Furthermore, Aarseth (1997;1999) recognized that readers of digital literature had to put in a certain kind of effort that was not required when interacting with printed literature. It was for this reason he also coined the term “ergodic literature”, which was literature that required “nontrivial”
effort from the reader (Aarseth, 1997, p. 1). These approaches been further reinforced in academic and literary discourse (e.g. Douglas, 2000; Lee, 2002; Zimmerman, 2009; Ogden, 2013; Punday, 2018), and Aarseth’s terminology and notions have had a lasting impact on it. Furthermore, Aarseth’s terminology proves useful when discussing the translation of webcomics, as it can help point out key differences in both print and digital media without falling into extreme dichotomies.
Such nuanced discussions and comparisons, along with the consistent appearance of new terminology and neologisms referring to developing technology are needed within academia- they signal a printed work cannot be treated in exactly the same way as a digital one. At the same time, one should not exaggerate the differences, especially in contemporary times, where shifts from one medium to another occur with relative ease (Davis, 2018). Aarseth (1997) points out that reworking a text that is in print form into a digital form has not caused as many problems as predicted by some: “the potentially disruptive effects of media transitions have seldom been an issue, unlike semantic transitions such as language translation or intertextual practices” (p. 14). Still, Pisarski’s (2020) aforementioned example of the digital adaptation of Mickiewicz’s sonnets highlights that issues can appear (pp. 90-93). To avoid them, Pisarski (2020) proposes adhering to object-oriented philosophy criticism, an approach put forward by Graham Harman (p. 90). The approach sees a given creative work as both holistic and made up of intricate details, e.g. socioeconomic relations, but stipulates that “objects have a definite character that can nevertheless change, be perceived, and resist” (p. 91). Ergo, objects-interpreted here by Pisarski (2020) as creative works-can be changed and undergo remediation, so long as the essential elements that contribute to the work’s identity are preserved (p. 91). Therefore, it is important to be wary of placing undue weight on secondary matters, and accordingly adjust academic discussion. As such, studies discussing the translation of webcomics require insight into how the medium influences the work itself as well as its readership, along with a discussion of what current issues exist that may potentially influence translation work.
An example of an interesting current issue involving the online medium revolves around the concern of some webcomics being in danger of becoming obsolete due to rapidly evolving and changing technology. Established webcomic creator and digital illustrator, Stuart Campbell (2016), expresses this very concern in an article: “at some point in the future, all my digital projects will stop working due to software changing and unfortunately I don’t have the resources to continually maintain them. This inevitably leads to the projects becoming lost” (qtd. in Starr, 2016). Campbell points out that his recent webcomic, These Memories Won’t Last (2015), will eventually become defunct due to the website software it utilizes. Many webcomic creators are aware of the future technological problems when publishing their work online, and as a result they try to mitigate these problems as much as possible. For example, renowned cartoonist Steve Conley (2017) talks about
‘future-proofing’ webcomics in a blog post, noting how much online publishing has changed in the past decade. He summarizes his blog entry in the following way: “in the end, if I want to create stories that last, I must create them in a format <or formats> that will last” (Conley, 2017, n.p.).
This is a concern shared by Kleefeld (2020) who also talks about webcomics’ longevity; it is fairly easy for titles to become inaccessible or to disappear (pp. 212-214). It can be seen that the analysis and preservation of webcomics, be it from a literary or translational point of view, is a timely matter, especially since long-term digital storage is a continuously developing issue (Kleefeld,
2020, p. 214).
There are many important issues that surround the existence and subsequent translation of comics, and as such, when analyzing the selection of webcomics in this thesis, the differences between the print and digital/online realm will be pointed out accordingly, along with the issue of technological obsolescence. These matters will be particularly addressed when they will be shown to impact the translation process. However, these differences will not be given primary attention in the overall scope of the thesis, as they have been sufficiently highlighted in this section.
Consequently, in the second chapter of this thesis, attention will be paid to Vermeer’s and Reiss’ skopos theory, which, as translation scholar Jeremy Munday (2016) briefly summarizes,
“deals with a translational action based on a ST – the action has to be negotiated and performed and has a purpose and a result (. . .) A TT (. . .) must be fit for purpose; that is, it must be ‘functionally adequate’. Therefore, knowing why a ST is to be translated and what the function of the TT will be is crucial for the translator” (p. 127). While the theory and its application in the context of webcomics will be discussed in the second chapter in greater detail, it is important to note here that skopos theory adheres to a set of six underlying rules, among which are rules regarding reversibility, coherence, fidelity, and function, all of which are constructed according to a specific hierarchical order (Munday, 2016, p. 127). For this reason, a description of webcomics as well as a general division of them is necessary in order to properly frame the chosen translation theories. This is important especially because webcomics are a kind of electronic text that is not only entwined with its medium, but also with its often grass-roots, independent and anarchical character, thus making it a kind of literature that is created with a distinct and often specific purpose in mind.
It is also for this reason that Katharina Reiss’ functional text-type translational theory will be addressed in this thesis, along with more contemporary theory regarding digital text types, such as Katherine Hayles’ discussion on technotexts (2002) in the context of chosen examples. A technotext is a ‘text’ that “interrogates the inscription technology that produces it” (Hayles, 2002, p. 25), meaning that it is a work that through its content draws attention to its form, or more specifically, the medium through which it has been produced. Furthermore, Hayles describes technotext as a term that: “connects the technology that produces texts to the texts’ verbal constructions” (p. 26).
Combined with Reiss’ functional text-type theory, Hayles’s concept of the technotext helps enhance the translational discussion on webcomics, some of which are works that closely reflect the digital medium they perform in. Furthermore, there will also be allusions to contemporary translation theory and practices regarding online literature. Key here is Pisarski’s (2015; 2020) translation insight stemming from electronic literature, as well as Kleefeld’s (2020) overarching comments on webcomics.
It is important to note that while most webcomics usually include all four of Reiss’ main text-types, certain functions dominate certain webcomics. For instance, webcomics containing
political matters can often be classified as operative, such as Zahra’s Paradise (2011) by Amir Soltani and Khalil set in modern Iran, or Deena Mohamed’s Qahera (2013-current) which largely deals with feminism. In contrast, webcomics that mix genres or aim to tell amusing stories usually can be categorized as expressive, such as Tracy J. Bulter’s Lackadaisy (2006-current). Most often these functions are capitalized on by the author in a conscious way; as independent and alternative creators, webcomic authors tend to be very aware of their reader audience, and as such adjust their work accordingly in order for it to be well-received.
For this reason it is common for webcomics to be directed towards niche or marginalized reader groups, be they of a certain sexuality, nationality, generation, or fans of a specific a literary genre (Kleefeld, 2020, pp. 200-203). Webcomic translation needs to take this characteristic into account; the significant variety of webcomics creates a variety of readers, and thus webcomic translation needs to ensure that the readers of the target text are able to experience the same as the readers of the source text. Examples of webcomics directed at certain social and economic groups include Unshelved (2002-2016) by Gene Ambaum and Bill Barnes, which is primarily meant for librarians, Hark! A Vagrant (2007-2018) by Kate Beaton which is aimed at readers familiar with history, or Piled Higher and Deeper (1997-current) by Jorge Cham, which entails niche humor regarding academic life (figure 6).
Figure 6
Niche Humor Webcomic Strip
Note. Comic strip titled “Anatomy of a Group Meeting Presentation” Of note is the academic jargon and situational humor. Adapted from from PhD (1997-current), by J. Cham, retrieved June 11, 2021, from https://phdcomics.com/comics/archive_print.php?comicid=719
Other webcomics adhere more strongly to their alternative and social justice nature, their topics mainly focusing on e.g. marginalized sexualities, such as Angels of the Realm (2014) by Mildred
Louis or Maniac Pixie Nightmare Girls (2013) by Jessica U, or discriminated nationalities, such as The Ad Astra Comix website which regularly publishes webcomics on such matters. Yet the number of webcomics that are lighthearted and humorous tend to prevail in the contemporary webcomic sphere, especially in terms of reviving literary genres, e.g. Ashley Cope’s fantasy webcomic Unsounded (2010-current), or short comic strips depicting generational humor e.g. Shen Comix (2013) containing millennial humor. Even gaming webcomics such as the famous Penny Arcade (1998) by Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik still find a significant audience. Coincidentally, these kind of webcomics tend to be the easiest ones to translate due to their approachable topic matter.
As can be seen on the basis of the former historical segment and this general introduction, the scope of functions and purposes for each webcomic is wide, and greatly differs depending on the analyzed work; works range from serious social discourse to creative exploration of established literary genres. It would be impossible to include a quasi-encyclopedic differentiation of the functions of webcomics within this thesis, and neither would it be needed; rather, what is of importance here is choosing a selection of webcomics that represent the vast functional differences that a potential translator could encounter, and, following this, to adequately discuss translational issues confined to this very selection. Often, any kind of translation would entail careful analysis of specific examples, rather than providing blanket statements regarding translational theory. For this reason Vermeer’s and Reiss’ skopos theory, as well as Reiss’ text-types theory provide a stable translational ground work for a type of electronic literature as diverse in function and reader audience as webcomics, coupled with the addition of relevant literary or translational discourse. But before this topic is explored, another feature of webcomics must be addressed-multimodality.