Relevance to Webcomics: Conclusion

(2018) notes to be relevant to media archeology. This is due to the fact that in a similar fashion to the aforementioned theories, semiotic technology places its focus on the software itself, in addition to the content, texts, imagetexts, and interactions that arise from the use of this software (Djonov and van Leeuwen 2017, p. 567). Developed largely by Emilia Djonov and Theo van Leeuwen, semiotic technology is oriented around social interactions, media and technology, with a specific focus on software, where the meaning of semiotics in acknowledged within the role of software.

Indeed, Moschini (2018) describes semiotic technology as a study of how “semiotic resources for making meaning and the related social norms are inscribed in software”, which is also connected to platform studies (p. 624). Djonov and van Leeuwen (2017) even coin the term semiotic software within this field, an example of which is social media, as it not only allows users to choose from a number of semiotic resources but also: “incorporates and represents knowledge about what constitutes effective use of these resources in particular contexts” (p. 576).

Therefore, semiotic technology, much like platform studies, sheds light on how much given software is a driving force behind composed content, be it authorial or user-generated through the help of API’s. It is why among other things Zhao, Djonov, and van Leeuwen and focus on semiotic technology within the learning environment, e.g. discussing PowerPoint (2014a; 2014b), or by taking a closer look at social media itself and how it is a “social, cultural, economic and technological [construct] that dominates media and cultural studies” (Djonov and van Leeuwen, 2018, p. 641). Both authors propose a model that studies social media as semiotic technology, and how it may in turn influence social practices; they extend this model to such software as PowerPoint, but also to ResearchGate, the well-known academic website (Djonov and van Leeuwen, 2018). Social media, as an example of semiotic technology, is influenced by its programming, its semiotic resources and constraints, as well as other socio-political factors that ultimately shape given practices and content: “when people perform activities online, their individual and collective goals become subjected to the objectives programmed into the digital platforms they use” (Djonov and van Leeuwen, 2018, pp. 641-642). Therefore, technology influences created content.

platforms and popularized software. They also draw attention to other factors that do not entirely pertain to the topic of this thesis, such as politics, deep technological queries, or social-economic factors. Regardless, these approaches must be mentioned in order to provide an all-encompassing view of how digital and online media work in contemporary times, and how they, subsequently, influence the content and form of given works, as well as translation practices. Therefore, the primary reason for their mention in this thesis is that they reflect a rising trend in how contemporary media theory ties technology to its content-an attitude that should be also adopted to webcomics and their translation. Even though the use of image and word comes first when analyzing and translating webcomics, the technological aspect is very close behind, unable to be ignored. In the case of webcomics, every example often needs a detailed re-account of its technological surroundings, especially if the webcomic is enhanced.

Webcomics are works created due to the constraints and abilities of online technology, along with the governing rules of platforms they operate within. The goal therefore is to shine a light on presiding technological and online context, and how it influences the translation of webcomics.

Jiménez-Crespo’s and O’Hagan’s studies on crowdsourcing models and massive online translation efforts reflect how translation has become a joint effort performed by amateurs or non-native language speakers to keep up with increasing demand. Such efforts are encouraged by how user-centric the contemporary Internet landscape has become, as well as how prominent crowdfunding platforms have become, as detailed e.g. by Kleefeld (2020, pp. 33-34). Logically, platform studies follow as a relevant domain of study. They emphasize the technological aspect ever present on platforms, as each platform can have a significant effect on a published creative work. Furthermore, platform studies, along with media archeology, encourage at least the acquiring of basic technical knowledge that is needed to understand online/digital works. According to Bogost and Montfort (2009), this is helpful in interpreting digital media: “Platform studies shows how technical understanding can lead to new sorts of insights”. This is due to the fact that computational platforms form an important basis for the media created on them. As such, Bogost and Montfort (2009) declare the importance of studying platforms- after all, the form influences the content. This is particularly relatable in the case of webcomics, which are tied to their environment and the platforms they are posted on, something that Kleefeld (2020) consistently emphasizes throughout his book; he ties webcomics’ creation and success to the development of the Internet as a user-oriented, open environment that is open to form experimentation (pp. 13-37; 48-56; 128-140).

In fact, webcomics are highly dependent on it: “webcomics, by definition, are only possible at all thanks to the technology that powers both the Internet and the World Wide Web and, as such, they are completely dependent on them at all times” (p. 49). It is therefore not surprising that many webcomics are created and uploaded on social media platforms and apps: they make it easy to upload and share content (Kleefeld, 2020, pp. 45-46). As Kotopopi (2018) laments: “Unfortunately

I happened to arrive on the scene a second too late: new online platforms and social media were already replacing individual websites as the new favorite place where to read comics” (n.p.). The change Kotopopi is referring to is connected to the issue around why there are fewer long-form, epistolary webcomic titles that are featured on websites and more episodic strip-form webcomics, which are easier to share and potentially translate. However, Kotopopi forgets to refer to mobile comics: such platforms like Webtoon or Tapas allow for long-form webcomics to be easily published, provided they fit the already preset, vertical infinite canvas form that is typical of mobile interfaces. It is for this reason that such webcomics as Unsounded (2010-current) or Lackadaisy (2006-current) are featured on websites tailor-made by their authors- due to their own specific formatting, they do not fit defined presets on such sites as Tapas or Webtoon. Therefore, the continued need for personal websites dedicated to webcomics is not surprising due to the proliferation of third-party platforms which do not accommodate all the creative needs authors may have.

In an article on writing in online contexts such specific platforms, websites and apps, Myrrh Domingo, Carey Jewitt and Gunther Kress (2014) discuss how online works take advantage of technological developments and the rising potential of including complex imagery; on the example of food blogs, the authors demonstrate how online writing has substantially changed in the past decade, in large part due to the predominance of the visual and the displacement of printed media (p. 2). Above all, they point towards online platforms, which enable users to perform rudimentary programming or adjustments, e.g. embedding videos or images; such actions influence online creativity, as they explain on the example of writing in WordPress, a blogging platform: “That is, the technologies underlying a blogging platform, such as WordPress, have a kind of grammar that sets out potentials and constraints that in turn have effects for the possibilities of writing online.

Understanding how these technologies shape writing has become one pre-condition for understanding writing in online contexts” (Domingo et al., 2014, p. 2). Indeed, the authors describe writing as embedded in a multimodal ensemble which shifts and changes depending on social interactions, purposes, opportunities and affordances (Domingo et al., 2014, pp. 2-4).

Domingo, Jewitt and Kress’ discussion relates to webcomics themselves, which are influenced by the platform they function in, and as well are dependent on the technological possibilities a hosting site has to offer. It is in this way we see how platform studies can aid in the discussion of webcomics and their translation; in fact, this has already been incorporated within this thesis. Aforementioned examples of translated fansites and dedicated hosting sites are all examples of modern online webcomic platforms, each of which influence content and reader/user interactions; these in turn may dictate how a given webcomic could be translated. A simple example would be the previously mentioned Webtoon application and website, which supposes a horizontal, infinite canvas design for its webcomics, which are uploaded by authors and subsequently translated

by fan translators in the same format. However, even if a given webcomic is hosted on a private website, where the author has full authority i.e. a linear style of reading is strictly established (Domingo, Jewitt, Kress, 2014, p. 5), said webcomic is often connected to other platforms, if it itself is already not by design one. A good example is the webcomic Unsounded (2010-current), which imposes a linear reading order and allows for comments beneath each page, but also branches out to such platforms as its wiki and the author’s Patreon, as well as such social media platforms as twitter and tumblr. An understanding of how each webcomic functions and in what kind of platforms it presides in allows for an in-depth analysis that aids in the gauging of translational possibilities. Interconnection and cross-platform presence is common, and a knowledge of this inter-connectivity clues in a translator as to how to go about translating a work which can become scattered. As such, platform studies can and should be applied to webcomic translation, similarly to media archeology, which in fact has already been used within the scope of this thesis in the first chapter that discusses the origins and development of webcomics.

2.2.3.a. Examples. In order to present a more pointed example of how specific use of online