The appliance of the knowledge of psychology of personality in the study of the functioning of a state

Stanisław Siek

The appliance of the knowledge of

psychology of personality in the

study of the functioning of a state

C o lle c ta n e a T h e o lo g ic a 58 (1988) fa sc . sp e c ia lis

THE APPLIANCE OF THE KNOWLEDGE O F PSYCHOLOGY O F PERSONALITY

IN THE STUDY OF THE FU N CTIO N IN G O F A STATE

The p sy ch o lo g y of p e rso n a lity , sh o rtly speaking, d e a ls w ith th re e m ain problem s: th e s tru c tu re of p e rso n a lity , its origin and d e v elo p m en t and th e m ethods of inquiry.

G en erally sp eak in g the p roblem of th e stru c tu re of p e rso n a lity seek s th e e x p la n a tio n of th e te x tu re, o rg an isa tio n of th e psy chical life as a w hole; it gives a d e scrip tio n of th e in d ep e n d e n t or m ore im p o rtan t e le m en ts of th is te x tu re and re la tio n s b e tw e en them . P sychologists solve th ese q u estio n s d ifferen tly , th e re fo re w e hav e differen t "co n cep tion s", "th e o rie s" or m odels of perso n ality .

W h en d ealing w ith th e p roblem of origin and th e d ev elo p m en t of a p e rso n a lity w e try to give an an sw er to th e question s: w hat factors cond ition th e developm ent, of p e rso n a lity an d its p a rticu la r elem ents; w h a t so rt of re g u la ritie s a re th e re an d w h a t k in d of p ro ­ cesses ta k e p a rt in it. T he p ro b lem of m ethods of se arc h in g is si­ m ilar. Som e tre n d s an d schools of th in k in g p refe r differen t m ethods of inquiry, b u t th e re a re m ore and m ore of th e m ethod s and th e y becom e m ore and m ore reliab le and accu rate.

In sp ite of th e lack of a ho m ogeneous th e o ry of p e rso n a lity accep ted b y m ost of th e p sy ch o lo g ists and in spite of v a rio u s opi­ nions about th e origin and d ev elo p m en t of p erso n a lity , our k n o w ­ led ge becom es ric h e r an d m ore in te g ra te d so it can be used for th e stu d y of art, c u ltu re and p erh ap s e v e n in th e a n a ly sis of th e function in g of state. In th is p a p e r I w ould like to p a y a tte n tio n to som e of th e p o ssib ilities in th is field.

The p u rp o se of th is re p o rt is to p re se n t a c e rtain w a y of d ealin g w ith th e a n a ly sis of th e fu nctio n ing of a s ta te ta k e n as a stru c tu re ANALOGOUS to th e stru c tu re of m en tal life as a a n e n tity called person ality .

T he base of th is a n a ly sis is an ASSUM PTIO N claim ing th a t a sta te as an e n tity fu n ctio ns an alo g o u sly to a p e rso n a lity . A p p ro v ­ ing this assum ption w e h a v e to p o in t out som e e le m en ts in th e s tru c tu re of sta te w hich are analog o us to e le m en ts of th e stru c tu re of perso n ality . H av in g th e se e le m en ts w e can p u t th e question: how do the an alo g o u s e le m en ts of th e stru c tu re of p e rso n a lity function and w h a t kind of re g u la ritie s are involved? H av in g th e inform ation about th e fun ctio n in g of se p a ra te e lem en ts of p e rso n a lity w e are

able to ATTRIBUTE b y an a lo g y sim ilar fu n ctio n s an d "b eh a v io u rs" to th e bo d y of state.

W h a t so rt of re su lts can be o b tain ed b y th is approach?

1. Firstly, th is ap p ro a c h g iv es us a c e rta in MODEL of th e functioning of sta te as a w hole.

2. S econdly, h a v in g th e m odel of th e fu n ctio n in g of th e " n o r­ m al" s ta te like th e m odels of fu n ctio nin g of th e "n orm al" p e rso n a lity w e can e v a lu a te th e QUALITY OF FU N C TIO N IN G of a c e rtain sta te in q u estio n b y com paring it to an alo g o u s m odels of PERSONA­ LITY WELL ADAPTED, MATURE, HEALTHY an d to m odels of UNADAPTED, IMMATURE PERSONALITY.

W h a t a re th e w e a k p o in ts of th is a p p ro a c h of a n a ly sis of th e functionin g of state?

T here can b e som e do u b ts ab o u t th e b asic assum ption th a t th e stru c tu re of s ta te is an alo g ous to th e s tru c tu re of p e rso n a lity and th at th e fun ctio n in g of p e rso n a lity is an alo g o u s to th e functio nin g of state.

But in science w e can accep t c e rta in assu m p tion s if th e y a re p o ten tia lly fruitful, i.e. allow us to m ak e u p a c e rtain m odel of functioning of som ething, a m odel w h ich is lo g ical and co h eren t, w hich can d e liv e r som e inform ation ab o u t a c e rta in field of rea lity .

A n o ther w e a k p o in t of this ap p ro a c h is th a t opinions abo ut a p erso n ality , its stru c tu re and its fu n ctio n in g a re n o t u n iv o ca lly determ ined. T h ere e x ist a dozen o r so of different con cep tion s of p e rso n a lity w h ich p o in t out d ifferen t e le m en ts of p e rso n a lity s tru c ­ tu re and d ifferen t forces d e te rm in in g its functioning.

Personality Structure and State Structure

T h e re a re m ore th a n 50 d efin itio n s of p e rso n a lity . This e x p re s ­ sion u su a lly m eans th e STRUCTURED ENTIRETY of o n e's m ental life.

T he sim plest d efin itio n s d e scrib e p e rso n a lity as a w hole, a sum of differen t tra its an d qualities. Prince, for exam ple, d escrib es p e rso n a lity as th e sum -total of all biolog ical in n a te dispositions, im pulses, ten d e n c ie s, d e sire s an d in stin cts of an in d iv id u al an d d is­ positions and ten d e n c ie s acq u ired by ex p erien ce.

T h e re a re g ro u p s of defin itio n s em p hasizin g th e u n iq u en ess of this stru c tu re in p a rtic u la r perso n s. A cco rd ing to S hoen p e rs o n a ­ lity is a stru c tu re d system , a fun ctio n in g u n it of h abits, dispositions, em otional a ttitu d e s w h ich m ark e d ly d istin g u ish one p e rso n from another.

O ne of th e m ost o ften ly cited d escrip tio n s is A llp o rt's d efin i­ tion say in g p e rs o n a lity is a dyn am ic o rg an isa tio n of th o se p sy c h o ­ physical sy stem s of th e in d iv id u al w hich d e te rm in e his u n iq u e w ay of ad ju stin g to th e e n v iro n m e n t (Allport, 1949, p 43—48).

TH E F U N C T IO N IN G OF A STA TE

205 T h ere a re different opinions in m o d ern p sy c h o lo g y on W H A T SORT of ELEMENTS th e m ental life of an individual, called p e rs o ­ n ality, o rg anised of. D ifferent au th o rs specify v a rio u s elem ents and form s of this organ isation . T hese opinions a re called p e rso n a lity th eo ries, or m ore a d e q u a te ly — co n cep tio n s of p e rso n a lity s tru c tu ­ res. T h ere a re m ore th a n te n co n cep tio n s of p e rso n a lity stru c tu re s and th e y a re u su a lly d e v id e d into concep tio n s of TRAITS, TYPES, FACTORS, PSYCHOANALYTICAL co ncepts and th e so-called t r a ­ ditional concepts. T h ese d ivisions a re n o t se p a ra te an d v e ry often th ey o v erlap e a ch other.

A ccording to a d h e re n ts of concept of traits, for exam ple All- p o rt's or G uiford's, th e basic elem en t of th e org an izatio n called p e rso n a lity is th e tra it of p erso n ality . G roups of tra its m ost o ftenly accounted as p e rso n a lity stru c tu re elem en ts are: p sy ch ical needs, drives, capacities, em otions, attitu d es.

T he co n cep tion s of ty p es a re b ased on th e n o tion of type. A dh eren ts of th is co n cep ts — for ex am p le K retschm er, Sheldon, H eym ans, P aw łów acco u n t th e p e rso n a lity s tru c tu re as an o rg an iza­ tion of ty p es of tem p eram en t, c h aracter, tem p eram en t an d ch aracter, a ttitu d e s — d istin g u ish from 2 up to 8 ty p e s of p erso n ality .

C onceptions of facto rs a re b ased on th e n o tio n of factor or dim ension of perso n ality . For ex am ple E ysenck distin g u ish es tw o re v e rse dim ensions of p e rso n a lity : ex tra v ersio n -in tro v e rsio n , em o­ tional stabilization-neuroticizm , and C attell d istin g u ish es 16 re v e rse dim ensions (Cattell, 1957).

P sy ch o an alitical co n cep ts of p e rso n a lity d istin g u ish 3 fields of tra its and rea c tio n s of p e rso n a lity in th e p e rso n a lity stru c tu re : Id, Ego, Superego. In th e scope of Id tw o g ro u p s of in stin cts or driv es a re poin ted out: Eros and T h a n a to s and in th e scope of Ego m ore th an ten tra its called th e d efen se m echanism s and 4 c h a ra c te rs: oral, anal, phallic, g e n ita l (Blum, 1964).

"T rad itio n al" co n cep ts of p e rso n a lity stru c tu re u se th e n o tion of type and tra its as e le m en ts of p e rso n a lity stru c tu re . A cco rd ing to Rem plein, w ho could be acco u n ted as an a d h e re n t of th is concept, th e p e rso n a lity stru c tu re is an o rg an ization of drives, tem p eram en t, ch aracter, will, em otio n s and ab ilities (Remplein, 1970).

From th e an aly sis of d iffe re n t co n cep ts follow s th a t m ost of psy ch o lo g ists d istin g uish sim ilar basic e lem en ts of th e p e rso n a lity stru c tu re but th e y call them d ifferen tly and som etim es a ttrib u te th em a little d ifferen t scope of functions. As b asic e lem en ts m ost of th e psy ch o lo g ists distinguish:

1. T he forces in v o lv ed in th e p e rso n a lity d e te rm in in g e n e rg y an d d irectio n to o n e's b eh av io ur.

2. T he c en ter guiding o n e 's b eh av iou r. E xponents of differen t lines of th in k in g call th is c e n te r: will, Ego, Self, self concept.

p a tte rn s of acting, a set of m oral in ju n c tio n s an d com m ands. This ele m en t of p e rs o n a lity s tru c tu re is som etim es called th e id eal of self, Superego, con science, p red o m in an t v alues.

4. T he fo rces in v o lv ed in th e p erso n ality , th e ta s k of w hich is to p ro te c t th e in d iv id u al a g ain st fea r an d m inim ization, feeling of guilt, n e g a tiv e self-concept.

5. A bilities, em otions, attitudes.

A p p ro v in g th e assu m p tio n th a t a sta te is an an alo g o u s stru c tu re to th e stru c tu re called p erso n ality , w e c a n try to d istin g u ish th e elem en ts of sta te w h ich a re an alog o us to th e e le m en ts of p e rso n a lity stru ctu re.

O ne of th e o ld est a n d th e sim plest d efin itio n s of state, A risto- te l’s definition, d e scrib es it as a un io n of peo ple, trib e s and fam ilies in c e rtain p lac e s to p ro te c t th em a g ain st h a rm a n d w ith th e p urpo se of g ain in g p e rfe c t and self-sufficient life (A ristotel, P olitics III, p. 117).

M od ern d efin itio n s of s ta te d e scrib e it as com plex org anizatio n of peo p le on c e rtain te rrito ry . E hrlich speak s ab o u t sta te as a global org anization u n itin g all classes of society, stra ta and social groups.

In a n o th e r p lace h e d escrib es th e s ta te as a h iera rc h ica l and te rrito ria l o rg an izatio n of co ercio n w h ich fulfills th e econom ical, political, id eo lo g ical in te re sts of th e class in p ossessio n of th e so u r­ ces of pro d u ctio n (Ehrlich, 1979, p. 39— 40).

In plain w o rd s w e can sa y th e sta te is a g lob al o rg an izatio n of people on a c e rtain te rrito ry w h ere one g roup in p o w er e x o rts from o th er peo p le c e rta in o b lig ated b e h a v io u rs for th e sak e of th e ir ow n in te re st or of th e m ajority.

In th e sta te stru c tu re , like in th e p e rso n a lity stru ctu re, w e can distin g u ish c e rta in e lem en ts fulfilling d iffe re n t functions. U sually w e distinguish:

I. System s of o rg an izatio n of p o w er (ruling decisive organs). II. System s of org an izatio n of co ercio n (adm inistration, courts, public p ro se c u to r's office).

III. S ystem s of control.

IV. System s of econom ical, cu ltu ral an d o th er o rg an izatio ns (Ehrlich, 1979, p. 73— 74).

Looking at th e stru c tu re of a n y sta te w e n o tic e som e elem en ts of POLARIZATION. C en ter of p o w er guid e th e citizens' b e h a v io u r or e x to rt o b lig a to ry b eh a v io u r from th em im posed b y law and norm s of social co ex istence, or a b e h a v io u r se rv in g th e in te re sts of th e s ta te as a w hole. T h ere is in th is o rg an izatio n a stru ggle of m ore or less an tag o n istic forces.

Let us try to co n fro nt now th e m ore im p o rta n t an alo g ies b e tw e en sta te a n d p erso n ality .

In bo th of th em a stru g g le of an tag o n istic fo rces ta k e s place. T he stru g g le of th e s e fo rces w as em p h a sise d e v e n in th e sim plest

T H E F U N C T IO N IN G O F A. STA TE ₂₀₇

m odels of m en tal life. So re a so n and w ill w e re op posed to em otions, d riv e s and passions. T he soul opposed to body. R eason to em otions. Freud an d p sy c h o an a litic s w ere th o se w ho in p a rtic u la r p aid a tte n ­ tion to th e stru g g le of an tag o n istic forces actin g w ith in th e p e rso n a ­ lity. T he p o larizatio n of p e rso n a lity and th e stru g g le of antag o n istic forces ap p e are d on d iffe re n t lev e ls of p e rso n a lity . It is e x p re sse d in th e opposition b e tw e en con scio u sn ess an d u n con sciou sn ess, in fa n ti­ lism and m atu rity , b e h a v io u r im p rop erly an d p ro p e rly ad ju sted , ten d en cies to w a rd s eg oistic and pro-so cial b eh av io u rs. T he stru gg le of an tag o n istic fo rces w ith in p e rso n a lity is to be found in th e r e la ­ tion b etw e en self-concept and ideal of self, th e le v e l of asp iratio n s and psy ch o p h y sical p redisp o sitio n s, th e te n sio n of p sy ch ical n eed s and th e po ssib ilities of reliev in g them in actin g of th e w ill and character.

The second an alo g o u s elem en t of th e sta te and p e rso n a lity is th e ru lin g cen ter, th e c e n te r of pow er. I m en tio ned th a t th e p sy c h o ­ logy of p e rso n a lity d escrib es it as a self, Ego, self-concept, will.

T he guiding c e n te r of p e rso n a lity like th e c e n te r of sta te p ow er has its ''s u p e rs tru c tu re ''. T hose are: o n e's ideals, p a tte rn s of acting, scales of values, p h ilo so p h y of life and w h a t p sy c h o an a litic s call th e Superego. T he ru lin g c e n te r of th e s ta te also h as its s u p e rstru c ­ tu re in th e form of a c e rtain philosophy, outlook on life and id eo ­ logy.

The th ird analo g o u s ele m en t of p e rso n a lity and sta te is th e system of contro l and coercion. In a sta te th is fu nction is carried o ut by a sp ecialized in stitu tio n and also b y w h a t is called "public opinion". In a p e rso n a lity th e con tro l sy stem s a re d escrib ed as conscience, id eals and norm s, Superego, m oral norm s, norm s of p h i­ losophy of life. T h e re a re also som e m ore or less u nco nscio us stru c ­ tu re s of co n tro l of p erso n ality .

These a re d isp o sitio n s w hich are th e effect of e x p e rien c e d r a n ­ cours, acq u ired com plexes, p ro p ertie s of self-concept form ed in e a rly childhood.

Som e of th e "m eans of coercion " used b y th e gu idin g c e n te r of p e rso n a lity are: fear, an x iety , feeling of guilt, d e p re c ia tio n of o ne's self-concept, loss of eu p h o ria, w orsen in g of fram e of m ind, m en tal discom fort, rem orse, m acabre dream s, feeling of loneliness, feeling of senselessn ess of life. T h ere a re also "p o sitiv e " m eans, for e x a m ­ ple: self-respect, com placency, jo y of life, in n er restfu lln ess, signs of app ro b atio n from others, in cre ase of in n er p restig e, feelin g of pow er.

H aving sta te d th e im p o rtan t an alo g ies b e tw e en th e p e rso n a lity s tru c tu re and sta te s tru c tu re w e can m ake fu rth e r step s in our a n a ­ lysis. N ow th ere arises th e q u estio n of choosing a co ncep tion of p e rso n a lity as th e b asis of th is analy sis. As it w as sta te d th e re a re m ore th an ten sign ificant p e rso n a lity conceptions. N o t all can be

useful to th e sam e deg ree. For th is k in d of a n a ly sis a re useful th eo ries w hich h a v e th e an alo g ou s e le m en ts m entioned ab o v e w ell d escrib ed. For exam ple, th e p sy c h o an a ly tic conception, th e o ry of A llport, M urray, Lewin, Lersch.

Since p a rtic u la r co n cep tio n s of p e rs o n a lity co ntain som e e le ­ m ents d escrib ed b e tte r th a n other, th e e c le c tic -a n a ly tic a l a ttitu d e could be m ore useful.

It w ould be b ased on th e d e scrip tio n of p a rtic u la r SETS of p e rso n a lity s tru c tu re on th e b ase of th e m odels w hich co n tain th e se e lem en ts w ell defin ed and on th e b a se of e x p e rim e n tal in q u iry and clinical o b se rv a tio n s of th ese elem en ts. In th is w a y w e could get as a base of th e s ta te a n a ly sis a co n ception of p e rso n a lity s tru c tu re w hich allow s, for exam ple, to a n a ly se th e psy ch ic n e e d s accordin g to M u rra y 's conception, self-concept a c co rd in g to A llp o rt's c o n c ep ­ tio n and th e d e fe n se m echanism s acco rd in g to p sy c h o an a ly tic s and m od ern clinical studies.

Of course, such an a ttitu d e is th e o re tic a lly cohesive, b u t it allow s to d e scrib e m an y "re a c tio n s and b e h a v io u rs" of state, w h a t is th e m ost im p o rta n t for th is kind of analy sis.

Follow ing th is w a y w e w ould o b tain th e THEORETICAL M O ­ DEL OF FU N C TIO N IN G OF A STATE w hich w ould tell us ho w a s ta te CA N w o rk and function. T his m odel w ould allow us to a n a ­ ly se th e fu n ction in g of a n y cho sen state.

It w ould be so m eth in g of a th e o ry of fu n ctio n in g of a sta te co n sid ered as an o rg an izatio n an alog o us to a p erso n ality .

Basing on su ch a schem e w e w ould be ab le to m ake th e a n a ­ ly sis of s ta te 's need s, its self-concept, its d e fe n se m echanism s, a tti­ tu d es or o ther e le m en ts of "p e rso n a lity of sta te ".

N ow arise s a q u e stio n ab o u t th e w ay of d o in g it, abou t th e p ro p er m ethod.

The Method of A nalysis of Functioning of a State Taken as an Organization A nalogous to Personality

P sy ch olo g y of p e rso n a lity has at its d isp o sal s e v e ra l m eth od s of study. T h ere are, for exam ple, q u estio n n aires, tests, in terv iew s, in ­ q uiries, la b o ra to ry and n a tu ra l ex p erim en ts, special m ethods of c re a tio n an aly sis, for e x am p le a n a ly sis of w o rk s of art, sy stem atic o b servatio n s. Som e of th e m ethods can be usefu l for th e an a ly sis of functioning of a state.

In th is re p o rt I shall deal w ith th e p o ssib ility of u sin g on ly one m ethod — th e sim plest and u se d as on e of th e first in th e stu d y of m ental life — th e m ethod of q uestioning. By th is I m ean an aly sis of th e sp o n tan ic o r stru c tu re d e x p re ssio n s of a p e rso n for th e stu d y of his p e rso n a lity .

T H E F U N C T IO N IN G OF A STA TE

209 Let us supp o se th e m eth o d is used by a clinical p sych o logist or p sy ch iatrist. H e sp eak s w ith th e p a tie n t or in v e stig a te s him an d on the basis of th e a c cep ted m odel of functio nin g of p erso n ality , or on the base of th e co n cep tion of illness an d p e rso n a lity disturbances, he sets in o rd er th e inform ation he got from th e p a tie n t and he pu ts a d efin ite 'd ia g n o s is " . T he q u a n tity an d q u a lity of th e p a tie n t's ex p ressio n s and th e ir co n te n t is an im p o rtan t inform ation for th e inv estig ato r.

E very p rac tisin g p sy ch o lo g ist kn ow s h o w m uch inform ation ab o u t th e p a tie n t's p e rso n a lity he can get o u t of th e a n a ly sis of his ex p ressio n. W e can get inform ation ab o u t his em o tio n s and feelin g his p sy ch ical needs, his a ttitu d e s and an ticip atio ns, his self-concept, th e stru g g le of th e d efen se m echanism s, a sp ira tio n s an d ranco urs.

In a sim ilar w ay w e can stu d y th e fu n ctio n in g of sta te — b y an aly sin g "th e e x p re ssio n of th e state". T h ere a re m an y possibilities of stu d yin g th e " s ta te ’s lan g u ag e". T he sta te speak s to us b y settled ru les and instru ctio n s, an n o u n cem en ts and appeals, th ro u g h radio and TV, th ro u g h n ew sp ap ers.

I th in k th e m ost p recise an d o b jec tiv e stu d y of th e " sta te 's lan guag e" is th e a n a ly sis of th e press. U su ally e v e ry s ta te h as a c e r­ tain n ew sp ap er w hich is an org an of a m ore or less official s ta te ­ m ent and this n e w sp a p e r should be th e su b ject of analysis.

T he first step of such an an a ly sis w ould be, as I m en tion ed before, acceptin g th e assu m ption th a t th e sta te fu nctio ns an alo g o u s­ ly to a p e rso n a lity of a h u m an being.

T he second step is th e d escrip tio n of th e p a rtic u la r e lem en ts of p e rso n a lity s tru c tu re on th e b ase of co n ceptio n s d e scrib ed best. This descrip tio n will be th e th e o re tic a l base, th e base for in te rp re ta tio n of " sta te 's language".

T he th ird step is th e p ro p er p sy ch olo g ical a n a ly sis b a sed on th e an aly sis of th e c o n ten ts of press.

The an aly sis of the c o n te n ts of p ress is com m only used n o w a ­ d ay s by p o litologists, p u blicists, som e sociologists. It is a p ity th a t th e k e y s used by th em a re n o t c o n sen t to p sy ch o lo g ical analy sis, and b e c au se of th is w e sh o u ld b ase on o u r ow n k e y s, i.e. th e th eo ries of p e rso n a lity stru c tu re and its p a rtic u la r elem ents.

Still m an y e le m en ts of m o d ern m eth o d s of a n a ly sis of th e co n te n t of p ress can be used in p sy ch olo g ical inquiries.

For ex am p le, in W a le ry P isarek 's book "T he a n a ly sis of th e co n te n t of p re s s ” w e can find som e inform ation on ho w to d escrib e the in te n sity of statem en t; w h a t u n its of m ea su rem e n t and e stim a ­ tion to use, h ow to stu d y th e re la tio n s b e tw e en th e c o n ten ts and form of new s, or th e re la tio n s b e tw e en c o n te n ts of n ew s and re a lity (Pisarek, 1983).

Let us show som e th e o re tic a l p ossib ilities of stu d y in g th e self- -concept of th e sta te an d th e fu n ctio n in g of d e fe n se m echanism s.

The Self-Concept as a Guiding of Personality of a Human Being and the Self-Concept of a State

T he c e n te re s a n d stru c tu re s ru lin g a p e rso n 's b e h a v io u r and in te g ra tin g his a ctio n s h a v e d ifferen t nam es in d iffe re n t schools of th in k in g in p sychology.

The m ajo rity of p re se n t-d a y p sy ch o lo g ists, p a rtic u la rly th o se of th e e x p e rim e n tal attitu d e , use th e e x p re ssio n self-concept for this center.

T he self-concept acts in a p e rso n 's p e rso n a lity as a facto r w hich u n ite s behav iou r, e n d o w s b e h a v io u r w ith a hom og eno us m ark, allow s to p ro p h et th e fu tu re b eh av io u r. It is said th a t th e self-con­ c ep t is kind of a m ap acco rd in g ly to w hich a p e rso n conducts his behaviour.

T he m odern p sy ch o lo g ists d e scrib e v e ry often self-concept as an o rg an isa tio n of p sy ch ical tra its an d p ro p e rtie s of th e organism recognized as o n e ’s ow n, specific for self of som ebody.

N uttin, a c co rd in g to R ogers and Sarbin, d e scrib es th e self-con­ c e p t as a co n scio u sn ess of o n e's ow n b ein g an d acting, as a su b ject and a set of e x p e rie n c e s reco g n ized as o n e's own, w h a t on e can say ab o u t oneself w h en one say s "I", ''m e 1'. (N uttin, 1968, p. 43).

D ana defin es self-concept as a se t of a different d e g re e of a w a re n e ss of id eas an d feelings and e x p re ssio n s co n cern in g oneself (Dana, 1966, p. 184).

A ccording to Com bs an d Snygg self-concept is an o rg an isatio n of all p ro p ertie s w h ich an in d iv idu al calls his ow n or self (Snygg, Combs, 1959, p. 12).

Self-concept is a m ore or less a w a re k n o w le d g e ab o u t o n e's ow n p ossibilities, p sy c h o p h y sic a l p ro p erties, needs, sta tu s am ong o th e r people, o n e's ow n em otions, a p p earan ce, cap abilities.

From e x p e rim e n ta l in q u iries it follow s th a t p eo p le a re a w are of som e of th e ir p ro p e rtie s v e ry w ell an d a re ab le to speak ab o u t them c le a rly b u t h a v e v a g u e feelin g s ab o u t o th e r p ro p ertie s and th e re a re p ro b ab ly som e reco g n ized as ''o n e 's o w n ” a p e rso n is no t at all a w a re of at p resen t.

Self-concept is th e basic e le m en t of a p e rs o n a lity b e c au se th e in d iv id u al's b e h a v io u r d ep en d s upon w h at th e self-concept is like. In m ost cases a p e rso n does n o t act a c co rd in g to h is o b jec tiv e ly d e scrib ed p sy c h o p h y sic a l p ro p e rtie s an d his p sy c h o p h y sic a l p o ssi­ bilities b u t a c co rd in g to ,,how h e sees th e re a l en v iro n m en t".

T he self-co n cep t of a p e rso n m ay h a v e d ifferen t p ro p ertie s in v o lv in g a p e rso n 's b e h a v io u r an d lea v in g a specific im press on him.

T he self-concept can be:

global a n d differen tiated , o v e rs ta te d and low ered, stab ilized an d u nstabilized.

T H E F U N C T IO N IN G O F A STA TE ₂₁₁ A pp rov in g th e assu m p tio n th a t th e s ta te fu nction s an alo g o u sly to p e rso n a lity w e assu m e th a t th e m anaging c e n te r of th e s ta te also h a s a c e rtain self-concept an d th a t th e p ro p e rtie s of th is im age in ­ volv e and le a v e an im press on th e fu n ction in g of th e state.

W e can th e re fo re assum e th a t th e ru lin g c e n te r of th e state m ay h a v e a g lo b al or d iffe re n tia te d self-concept, o v e rs ta te d or lo ­ w ered , stabilized or unstabilized.

W h a t kind of a c tiv itie s can be cau sed b y th e se p ro p e rtie s of self-concept?

T h e g l o b a l a n d d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s e l f - c o n c e p t

T he global self-concept is m ark ed out b y v a g u e k n o w led g e ab o u t o n e's p o ssib ilities and re a l en v iro n m en t, b y n o t k no w in g o n e 's w ishes and attem pts. T h ere is an u n c e rta in feelin g ab o u t o n e 's social ro le and ab o u t o n e's m ission. T he global self-concept is c h a ra c te ris­ tic of an u n c ritic a l an d u n d u ra b le a c ce p tatio n of opinions an d su g ­ gestion s of o th er people.

T he d ifferen tiated self-concept m eans th a t th e in d iv id u al know s e x a c tly w h at he w ants, h e kn o w s an d re a listic a lly d escrib es his ow n possibilities, h e sticks to a d e fin ite lin e of acting.

T he ru lin g c e n te r of th e sta te of a d iffe re n tia te d self-concept im poses c lear and p rec ise lin es of action. It re a listic a lly d escrib es its po ssib ilities an d k n o w s e x a c tly w h a t aim s it w a n ts to achieve.

A s ta te w ith th e ru lin g c e n te r of a global self-co ncep t has a dim u n d u ra b le feelin g of its ro le an d m ission. It e stim a te s itself and its possibilities u n rea listic a lly . It ta k e s up u n c ritic a lly an d n o t for long different ideas of action, it is su scep tible to suggestions.

T h e o v e r s t a t e d a n d l o w e r e d s e l f - c o n c e p t

T he o v e rsta te d self-concept w ould be e x p re sse d in o v e r-e stim a ­ tio n of o n e ’s po ssibilities, in th e in clin atio n for u n c ritic a l u n d e rta k ­ ing of v a rio u s actio n s w h ich are b ey on d o n e's a ctu al possibilities. T he o v e rsta te d self-concept and th e u n critical u n d e rta k in g of too difficult actio n s cau se fru stra tio n and th is lea d s to accu sin g o th er p eo p le of o n e's ow n faults, fallin g into conflicts, d em an din g u n ju sti- fic a te d fav o u rs from others. T he o v e rsta te d self-con cept u su a lly com es to g e th e r w ith low re sista n c e to difficult situ ation s, th re a t and stress.

T he lo w ered self-concept, lo w er self-estim ation, causes th e sta te to lim it, like a person, its activ ity , it d o es less th a n is able to, it obtains less th a n th e o b je c tiv e p o ssib ilities allow . It is c h a ra c te ­ ristic for th e lo w ered self-concept to ab an d o n som e a ctio n s re c o ­ gnized as d ifficult or to g iv e up su ch actions.

T h e s t a b i l i z e d a n d u n s t a b i l i z e d s e l f - c o n c e p t

Self-concept can be stabilized or u n stab ilized in d ep e n d e n tly of w hat ty p e it is, i.e.: global, o v e rsta te d , lo w e re d or ''n o rm a l" th a t m eans p ro p o rtio n a lly far-aw ay from th e id eal self.

T he optim al fun ctio n in g of th e in d iv id u al and s ta te is contidion- ed by th e stabilized, re a listic and d iffe re n tia te d self-concept.

T he stab ilized self-concept le a v e s a hom o geno u s im press on a ctivity, it goes to g e th e r w ith th e feeling of self-value, it gives th e sta b ility of b e h a v io u r and it is acco m p an ied b y a sm all a c tiv ity of th e d e fen se m echanism s.

The u n stab ilized self-concept m erges and in te g ra te s actio n s badly, it causes th e lack of a h o m ogenous re fe re n c e sy stem for an estim atio n of o n e 's o w n actions.

T he self-concept co nd ition s in a p e rso n a lity stru c tu re a stability of beh av io u r, k e e p in g of a m ore or less fixed lin e of activ ity. T he guiding c e n te r of th e p e rso n a lity as w ell a s of th e s ta te e n d e av o u r to som e e x te n t a u to m a tic ally after d efen din g th e sta b ility of self- -concept and th e re fo re a fte r d e fen d in g its lin e of activ ity , no m atter w h e th e r it is an efficient, m atu re or optim al a c tiv ity or on th e con­ tra r y — im m atu re and non-functional.

T h ere a re a few w a y s of unco n scio u s d efen se of th e self-concept an d th e lin e of o n e 's a c tiv ity : n e g a t i v i s m , sham eful n o n - - d i s c l o s u r e of o n e 's activ ities, i d e a l i z a t i o n of oneself, n o n - p e r c e p t i o n of w h a t is in co m p atib le w ith th e self-concept and th e p re s e n t a c tiv ity line, " p a t c h i n g u p t h e s e l f - c o n ­ c e p t " b y ratio n alizatio n s.

N eg ativ ism a p p e ars in stu b b o rn h e sita tio n in tak in g up new a c tiv itie s and lo o k in g for n ew so lutio n s and also in u sin g th e a ttitu ­ d e of "N o " to all n ew e n te rp rise s. It is u su a lly accom panied b y th e m ech anism of d e fe n se of self-concept sta b ility n a m e ly th e e x c e s ­ s i v e f i x a t i o n of o n e 's line of activ ity , restiv e n e ss, a c tiv ity "ju st to spite", go in g a ll lengths.

A n o th er w a y of d efen din g o n e's self-concept is th e i d e a l i z a ­ t i o n of oneself. T he in d iv id u al or th e gu id in g c e n te r of s ta te sta rt to a ttrib u te to itself m axim ally good featu res, all w h at is b e st and in th is w a y one p u ts him self b ey o n d re a c h of criticism .

T he k n o w le d g e of p sy c h o lo g y of p e rs o n a lity en a b le s us to stu d y th e fu nctio nin g of a n o th e r asp ect of sta te self-concept — its ESSENCE.

Self-concept is bu ilt of d ifferen t sets of tra its and p ro p ertie s w h ich a re reco g n ized as o n e's ow n an d specific for oneself. The self-concept of e v e ry h u m an bein g can b e reco g n ized as a con cept of o n e's own, p riv a te " p e rso n a lity stru c tu re ".

TH E F U N C T IO N IN G O F A STA TE

213 question: w h at k in d of activ ity , w h at k in d of p olicy could be e x ­ pected of th e sta te if th e p eo p le in th e ru lin g c e n te r re p re se n te d a d efin ite m en tal ty p e of people. W e k n o w from so m ew h ere else th a t w e seldom deal w ith cle a r ty p es of p erso n ality . It is also k now n th a t in th e ru lin g c e n te rs of sta te s th e re a re p e o p le of differen t ty p es of p e rso n a lity . But look in g into this issu e from th e po int of v iew of th e th e o ry of fu nctio n in g of s ta te w e can ask such a questio n a n d try to an sw er it.

In m odern p sy ch o lo g y th e re a re differen t ty p o lo g ies and such a th e o re tic a l a n a ly sis is possible. U sing th e term in o lo g y of p sy ch o ­ a n aly tics one can ask w h at k in d of a c tiv ity an d w h a t kin d of policy can be e x p e cte d of th e ru lin g c e n te r of sta te if it w as d o m in ated by in tro v e rtie or e x tra v e rtie people, b y peo p le w ith an oral, anal or phallic ch aracter? W h a t if it w as d o m inated b y "su b tle a risto c rats" or "p ractical and full of e n e rg y p eo p le" —· u sing th e term in o lo g y of K retschm er.

O ne could ask th is q u estio n b asin g on th e ty p o lo g y of Z nan iec­ ki. W h a t k in d of p olicy could be e x p e c te d if it w e re th e "p eo p le of w ork", "peo p le of am u sem en t" or "w ell-b red p eo p le" at pow er?

Lim ited b y tim e I sh all n o t con tin u e th is issue. I shall pass on to rem a rk s abo u t defen se m echanism s of an in d iv id u al and a state.

The defense m echanism s of personality and of state

M echanism s of defen se a re a set of p e rso n a lity tra its th e ta sk of w h ich is to defend th e in d iv id u al ag ain st th e feelin g of fear, disquiet, ag ain st feelin g of gu iltiness, th e p e rc e p tio n of d isa d v a n teg e o u s n e ­ g ativ e fea tu re s of self-concept, ag ain st sham e, a g ain st dim inishing oneself and d isa p p ro b a tio n from others.

T ypical for th e m echanism of defen se is th a t th e y act u n co n s­ ciously, th a t m eans th e p e rso n do es n o t realize h e a ro u se s th e d e ­ fense m echanism s.

D escribing th e m echanism s of d e fen se L aughlin sa y s th e y are specific p ro cesses w o rk in g o u tsid e th e co n scien ce th a t a hum an being is n ot a w are of. T he m echanism s of d e fe n se a re au to m atically and unco n scio u sly w o rk in g ten d e n c ie s attem p tin g to so lve th e em o ­ tio nal conflict safely an d to dim inish th e em o tio n al te n sio n and fear (Laughlin, 1963, p. 10).

T he m ajo rity of au th o rs tak in g up th ese prob lem s specify and d escrib e th e follow ing m echanism s of defense:

R epression, C om pensation,

S upression, R eaction Form ation,

D isplacem ent, R egression,

A ccepting th e assu m ptio n th a t th e s ta te fu n ctio n s an alo g o u sly to p e rso n a lity w e assum e th a t th e state, lik e th e h u m an being, aro u ses d e fe n se m echanism s and uses them .

T he sense of th e a c tiv ity of th e defen se m echanism s of sta te and p e rso n a lity is sim ilar: to d efen d oneself a g a in st d eg rad atio n , n e ­ g ativ e self-concept, fear and public opinion.

The m ain stru c tu re s ''e stim a tin g " th e fu n ctio n in g of s ta te is th e ru ling cen ter, th e opinions of o th er co u n tries, public opinion. T h erefo re th e m echanism s of d efen se w ould h a v e to d efend a state from co n tra d ic to ry ten d e n c ie s e m erg in g sim u lta n e o u sly from th e ruling cen ter, from th e p re ssu re of o th er sta te s and from th e p ressu re of th e society. H e re a re som e ex am p les of th e fu nctio n tin g of th e chosen defen se m echanism s.

R e p r e s s i o n a nd s u p r e s s i o n

R ep ression is an au to m atic blocking re s tra in in g th e rea c tio n s of the organism or p e rs o n a lity w hich cau se a feeling of fear, sham e, guiltiness, n e g a tiv e ch an g e of self-concept.

It is c h a ra c te ristic for th e fe a tu re of re p re ssio n th a t th e r e ­ stra in e d im pulses, for e x am p le th e im pulse of ag g ressio n or d o m in a­ tion can n o t a d m itte d ly b e d isclo sed b u t it do es n o t lo ose its e n e rg y w hich still d em and s re lie v in g of ten sion . So w h at is forced ou t is not re v e a le d b ut still ten d s to d isclo se itself an d th e re is still a n eed for c e rtain e n e rg y to k e e p th e forced out te n d e n c ie s restra in ed .

The m echanism of su p ressio n w ork s lik e th e m echanism of rep re ssio n w ith th e e x c ep tio n th a t in su p ressio n th e ind ivid ual realizes h e re s tra in e s som e th o u g h ts, im pulses, ten d en cies, actio n s or stops som e actions, w h e re as rep re ssio n w o rk s a u to m a tic ally and w ith ou t consciousness.

T he sim plest e x am p le of rep re ssio n an d su p re ssio n actin g in th e sta te bod y is th e so-called "tab o o " them e, n o t speak in g and w rit­ ing ab o u t c e rtain th in g s th a t could be d an g e ro u s for th e sta te and could spoil its p o sitiv e im age in th e in te rn al and e x te rn a l public

■ opinion.

D i s p l a c e m e n t o r t r a n s f e r e n c e

D isplacem ent or tra n sfe re n c e is a m echanism of d e fen se w h ich is b ased on th e fac t th a t feelin g or em o tio n is TRANSFERED from a p rim a rily sign ifican t o b jec t to another.

A sta te m an ip u lates em o tio n s and lines of n e e d s of citizens and m akes su ch "su b stitu tio n s". F o r ex am p le in th e e a rly ag es often th e p e rso n of th e fa th e r of a y o u n g m an w as su b stitu te d b y th e p e rso n of th e king. T he y o u n g m an tra n sfe re d m ost of his em o tio n s (love, respect, obed ien ce, d evotion) to his fath er.

TH E F U N C T IO N IN G O F A STA TE

215

A n o th er ex am p le of d isp lacem en t is tra n sfe rin g p a trio tic fee l­ ings for an cien t p e rso n a g e s to p e rso n a g e s of tod ay . O n e m ore ex am p le is d ire c tin g a n d tra n sfe rin g h o stile em o tio n s to som e defi­ n ite o b jects and p ersons.

From p sy ch o lo g ical p ra c tic e a re k n o w n cases of d isp lacem en t called substitution. S u b stitu tio n often m an ifests itself in th e d e ­ velo pm en t of som e h arm fu l h a b it or e n ta g le m e n t in som e tirin g a c tiv ity as to avoid so lv in g a serio u s conflict or p re v e n t th e d is ­ closure of d e sire s and n eed s n o t p ossible to be c a rrie d into effect at th e p re se n t m om ent.

A n ex am p le of th e fu n ctio n in g of su b stitu tio n m echanism s in a n y sta te can be th e u n d e rta k in g of sen seless w ars, th e u n d e rta k in g of irre le v a n t p o litical actions, th e e n ta g lem e n t in u n n e c e ssa ry e c o ­ n om ical in v estm en ts su rp a ssin g p o ssibilities.

C o m p e n s a t i o n

C om p en satio n is a d efen se m echanism w o rk in g w ith o u t th e p articip a tio n of consciousness, th a t is an in d iv id u al d e sire s to EQUILIBRATE or REDEEM th e d efects and fau lts h e p o ssesses or THINKS he p o ssesses in som e o th er a c tiv ity n o t c o n n ected w ith th e se re a l or im agined defects.

A t th e b a se of th e p ro cess of co m p en satio n is u su a lly th e fee l­ ing of d isc re a te d v alu e, u n c e rta in ty , d im inished feelin g of secu rity. If an in d iv id u al h as th is kind of conv ictio n ab o u t him self or h as feeling of defeat, unfulfillm ent, he trie s to gain a v ica rio u s satisfac­ tion an d in cre ase his self-value.

In te n siv e diplom atic activ ities, e x a g g e ra te d in v estm e n t in, for ex am p le sp o rt and p ressin g for resu lts, m y thologizing a c o u n try 's h isto ry and p re se n tin g o n e's n a tio n as strong, w ise and n o b le serv e as ex am ples of th e functionin g of sta te co m p en satio n m echanism .

R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n

R atio n alizatio n is a m echanism of d e fen se a p e rso n is n o t aw a re of and w hich co n sists of o n e's m otives, em otions, d e sire s w hich a re u n accep tab le, seem bad, rep u lsiv e, u n su ita b le to o ne's dignity, to no b le m o tiv es an d em otions.

R atio n alizatio n is often m an ifested b y e x c u lp a tio n of o n e's d isap p ro v ed activ itie s b y g iv in g th em h ig h er m o tiv atio n an d e x ­ plaining them b y ultim ate n ecessity .

T he sam e is th e case w ith a ttrib u tin g o n e's fau lt for o n e's failures to a n o th e r person; also e x a g g e ra tio n in stre ssin g th e so u n d ­ ness of o n e's actio n w hich is aim less, im m ature an d uneffective.

S atisfy in g th e stro n g n e e d s of ag g ression, p restig e, esteem , g reed for p o w er is m ask ed b y th e p eo p le a t p o w e r as se rv ic e for

ideas or c a rry in g o u t a h isto ric a l m ission a n d can s e rv e as ex am ples of th e ratio n aliz a tio n m echanism .

R ation alizatio n can som etim es ta k e th e form of an unconscious defo rm atio n of th e im age of th e w o rk of an in stitu tio n , a group of people, persons.

T he p ro cesses of defo rm atio n — ratio n aliz a tio n consist of e x a g ­ g e ra ted criticism , p o in tin g out inefficiency, stu pidity , negligence. In th is kind of criticism an in d iv id u al or in stitu tio n d isg u ises th e fee l­ ing of its u selessn ess, ineffectiv en ess an d in th e criticism of oth ers defends its ow n im age.

R e a c t i o n f o r m a t i o n

T he d efen se m echanism of re a c tio n fo rm atio n lies in th e fact that a p e rso n b e h a v e s in a m an n er CONTRARY to w h a t stro n g im ­ pulses an d te n d e n c ie s im pose on him and w h ich a re "u n ap p ro v a b le " and cau se fear an d condem nation.

So a re s tra in e d and su pp ressed ag g ressio n a p p e ars as a reactif form ation in th e form of an e x c essiv e k in d h e a rt, p o liten e ss and com plaisance, am b itio n an d p rid e as a h u m ility and sub serv ience, m alevo len ce as e x c e ssiv e frien d liness, d esire for izolation as an ex a g g era te d w ish of b ein g to g eth er.

In th e a c tiv ity of th e s ta te w e can o b serv e re a c tio n form ation in an y e x c essiv e statem en ts, a ssu ra n c es and prom ises. A n alysing th e se e x a g g e ra te d ly e x p re sse d em o tio n s w e can guess th e re e x ist w ithin

the s ta te forces w hich act in th e oppo site direction .

W e d istin g u ish th e fu n ctio n in g of re a c tio n form ation from "n orm al" b e h a v io u rs b y th e ir form of e x a g g e ra tio n , e x c essiv e in ­ te n sity and fre q u e n c y of exp ression .

R e g r e s s i o n

R eg ressio n is a d e fe n se m echanism w hich con sists in attem p tin g to solve situ atio n s of conflict by a p p ly in g b e h a v io u rs "below n orm al level", b e h a v io u rs specific for th e e a rlie r sta g e s of d ev elo p m ent d escribed as im m ature, childish and infantile.

W e could sp eak ab o u t reg re ssio n in th e fu n ctio n in g of a sta te if w e h ad n o ticed in its a c tiv ity less m atu re actio n s th an usual. As exam ples can s e rv e such b e h a v io u rs like m an ifestatio n of e x c essiv e passivity, d ep e n d en c e , dem an d of care, support, e x p o su re of egoism , n arcissism (narcissism — an u n ju stified feelin g of om nipo tence plus self-love).

T he in tro d u c tio n to re g re ssiv e b e h a v io u rs of sta te s and indi­ viduals is sto p pin g and fix ation of th e d e v e lo p m en t at a c e rtain stag e an d c o n sta n t re tu rn in g to th e s e fix atio n s in difficult and con ­ flict situ ation s. Sym ptom s of reg re ssio n of a d u lts e x p e rien c in g diffi­

T H E F U N C T IO N IN G OF A STA TE ₂₁₇

cu lties w ith a d ju stm e n t a re h y p o ch o n d rical a ttitu d e s, d em an d s for sp ecial priv ileges, c are and fo rb earan ce. If a s ta te e x c e ssiv e ly s tre s ­ ses sym ptom s of its "difficulties" or "illn esses" it d em an d s special priv ileg es so w e can assum e it applies th e defen se m ech anism of reg re ssio n as to in cre ase its feeling of se cu rity or to im prove its im age in th e e x te rn a l an d in te rn a l public opinion.

I show ed h e re only a p a rt of th e m an ifestatio n of som e of the d e fen se m echanism s in th e functio nin g of state. J u s t as p rev io u sly I p o in ted o u t som e of th e p o ssib ilities of a n a ly sin g th e self-concept of a state.

It is p o ssib le to stu d y o th er e le m en ts of th e fun ctio n in g of " sta te p e rso n a lity " sim ilarly to th e w a y p rese n ted , like: p sy ch ical needs, d isp o sitio n s and attitu d es, ran c o u rs and com plexes.

T he re p o rt p re se n te d show s som e th e o re tic a l p o ssib ilities p s y ­ chology of p e rso n a lity gives us. T he app licatio n of th e se possib ilities in som e co n crete a n a ly sis is a q u estion for a se p a ra te rep ort.

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