Effective Skill Refinement: Focusing on Process to Ensure Outcome

EFFECTIVE SKILL REFINEMENT:

FOCUSING ON PROCESS TO ENSURE OUTCOME

Howie J. Carson,

1, A, B, D

_{Dave Collins}

1, A, B, D

1 _{Institue of Coaching and Performance, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom} A _{Study Design;} B _{Data Collection;} C _{Statistical Analysis;} D0DQXVFULSW3UHSDUDWLRQE _{Funds Collection}

Address for correspondence:

Howie J. Carson, PhD University of Central Lancashire Institute of Coaching and Performance 161 Greenbank Building

Preston, PR1 2HE, United Kingdom (PDLO+&DUVRQ#XFODQDFXN

Abstract.

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Key words:

7HFKQLFDOFKDQJHSUHVVXUHUHVLVWDQFHORQJWHUPSHUPDQHQF\WKH)LYH$ Model, movement variability

Introduction

)RURYHU\HDUVUHVHDUFKHUVKDYHDWWHPSWHGWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHPHFKDQLVPVZKLFKHQDEOHWKHDWWDLQPHQW DQGH[HFXWLRQRIVNLOOHGSHUIRUPDQFHIRUD KLVWRULFDORYHUYLHZVHH6XPPHUV0RUHUHFHQWO\WKHUHKDVEHHQ VXEVWDQWLDOJURZWKRILQWHUHVWGLUHFWO\SHUWDLQLQJWRWKHDFTXLVLWLRQDQGRSWLPDOSHUIRUPDQFHRIVSRUWVVNLOOVHJ (ULFVVRQ HW DO  +RGJHV DQG )UDQNV  0DF3KHUVRQ HW DO  0HVDJQR DQG 0XOODQH*UDQW  As a consequence of such theorising (e.g., Fitts and Posner 1967; Gentile 1972) and researching, coaches are DIIRUGHGWKHSRWHQWLDOWREHJXLGHGE\D VFLHQWLILFDOO\LQIRUPHGHYLGHQFHEDVH8QIRUWXQDWHO\KRZHYHUWKHUHKDV EHHQDQDOPRVWFRPSOHWHQHJOHFWWRZDUGVDQHTXDOO\ZHOONQRZQDQGFRPPRQWDVNWRHOLWHOHYHODWKOHWHVDQGWKHLU FRDFKHVQDPHO\KRZWRFKDQJHWKHWHFKQLTXHRIDQDOUHDG\OHDUQWDQGZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGVNLOO

,QGHHGGHVSLWHDQDEHUUDQWO\KLJKVNLOOVWDWXVHOLWHDWKOHWHVVWLOOLQYHVWPXFKWLPHDQGHIIRUWWRWZHDNRUrefine WKHLUWHFKQLTXH$VSDUWRIDQ\HOLWHDWKOHWH¶VWUDLQLQJSURJUDPPHWHFKQLFDOUHILQHPHQWVIRUPDQDOPRVWLQHYLWDEOH FRPSRQHQW RI VWULYLQJ WR LPSURYH SHUIRUPDQFH 3UHYLRXVO\ ZH GHILQHG WHFKQLFDO UHILQHPHQW DV UHIOHFWLQJ ³WKH evolution of technique in a way that is new>HPSKDVLVDGGHG@WRWKHDWKOHWH´&DUVRQDQG&ROOLQVS ,QVRPHXQIRUWXQDWHFDVHVWKLVPLJKWEHIRUFHGE\LQMXU\FRQFHUQVRUDVSDUWRIWKHUHFRYHU\SURFHVVDVH[HPSOLILHG E\2O\PSLFKHSWDWKOHWH-HVVLFD(QQLV+LOOFKDQJLQJWKHWDNHRIIIRRWWRKHUORQJMXPS5HIOHFWLQJWKHPXOWLWXGHRI XQGHUSLQQLQJUDWLRQDOHVIRUUHILQHPHQW2O\PSLFMDYHOLQWKURZHU6WHYH%DFNOH\DOOXGHGWRPRWLYDWLRQDOEHQHILWVWKDW ZHUHJDLQHGE\IUHTXHQWO\³UHLQYHQWLQJ´KLPVHOIDQGKLVWHFKQLTXHDVD ZD\RIVWD\LQJ³LQWHUHVWHG´%%& section 9). Other reasons might include a UHVSRQVHWRFKDQJHVWRWDVNFRQVWUDLQWVHJORQJHUJROIKROHVQHZ FOXEGHVLJQVRUQHZMDYHOLQGHVLJQVRUDGYDQFHVPDGHE\FRPSHWLWRUV6XFKEURDGVFRSHRIUDWLRQDOHDWWHVWV WRWKHZLGHVSUHDGLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIUHILQHPHQWVDWWKHHOLWHOHYHODQGUHTXLUHPHQWIRUFRDFKHVWRSRVVHVVERWK GHFODUDWLYHµZKDWQHHGVWREHGRQH¶DQGSURFHGXUDOµKRZWRGR¶NQRZOHGJHRQWKHWRSLF $FFRUGLQJO\WKLVSDSHUIRFXVHVRQGHOLEHUDWHO\LQLWLDWHGWHFKQLFDOUHILQHPHQWV±QRWFKDQJHVWRWHFKQLTXH FDXVHGE\VKRUWWHUPSHUIRUPDQFHUHODWHGSHUWXUEDWLRQV±WRFORVHGDQGVHOISDFHGVNLOOVHJMDYHOLQWKURZLQJ JROIVZLQJDQGKRUL]RQWDOMXPSV,QDQDWWHPSWWRSURYLGHD FRPSUHKHQVLYHRYHUYLHZRIFXUUHQWXQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKUHHIXQGDPHQWDOFRQVLGHUDWLRQVDUHSUHVHQWHGWKHLQWHQGHGRXWFRPHVSURFHVVDQGHYDOXDWLYHPHDVXUHVRIVNLOO refinement. Understanding of all three will enable coaches and their athletes to make informed decisions about the UHTXLUHGWUDLQLQJ,QGHHGWKLVGHVLUHIRUWKHKLJKHVWTXDOLW\RIFRDFKLQJSUDFWLFHUHIOHFWVWKHRYHUDUFKLQJSXUSRVH EHKLQGRXUUHVHDUFKSURJUDPPHLQWKLVWRSLF

Essential outcomes of effective skill refinement

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Kinematic Change

Central to refining technique in elite athletes, is the requirement for kinematic modification to an already learnt DQGZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGVNLOO7KHUHIRUHLWLVHVVHQWLDOWKDWVWXGLHVUHSRUWNLQHPDWLFGDWDSHUWDLQLQJWRWKHLQWHQGHG UHILQHPHQWHJ&DUVRQHWDOD8QIRUWXQDWHO\KRZHYHUWKLVKDVQRWDOZD\VEHHQWKHFDVHZLWKLQHPSLULFDO VWXGLHV)RULQVWDQFH+DQLQHWDOSURYLGHD detailed theoretical rationale and intervention design to refine the GLYLQJWHFKQLTXHRIDQ2O\PSLFVZLPPHU\HWUHVXOWVRQO\SHUWDLQWRLPSURYHPHQWVLQVWDUWLQJWLPH6LPLODUO\5HQGHOO HWDOIRFXVHGWKHLUNLQHPDWLFDQDO\VLVRQWKHQHWEDOO¶VIOLJKWWRUHSUHVHQWHYLGHQFHRIWHFKQLTXHDGDSWDWLRQLQ 1DWLRQDOJRDOVKRRWHUV:KLOHWKHVHVWXGLHVXQGRXEWHGO\VKRZSUHWRSRVWLQWHUYHQWLRQGLIIHUHQFHVDOWKRXJKQRWDV GHVLUHGLQ5HQGHOOHWDO¶VVWXG\WKH\IDLOWRKDYHUHSRUWHGRQWKHYDULDEOHRIVWDWHGLQWHUHVWWKHDWKOHWHV¶LQWHQGHG

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Pressure resistance

,QHYLWDELOLW\ZLWKLQHOLWHOHYHOVSRUWSHDNSHUIRUPDQFHUHTXLUHVWKHVXFFHVVIXOH[HFXWLRQRID skill in highly FRPSHWLWLYHDQGSUHVVXULVHGHQYLURQPHQWV$VVXFKVLPSO\GHPRQVWUDWLQJVXFFHVVIXOH[HFXWLRQRID newly refined WHFKQLTXHLVLQVXIILFLHQW5DWKHUH[HFXWLRQPXVWUHPDLQWUDQVIHUUDEOHXQGHUV\PSWRPVRIKLJKFRPSHWLWLYHSUHVVXUH in order to be considered wholly successful. Instead of this being an issue of kinematic effectiveness, it is one of control andSV\FKRORJLFDOVWDWHVSHFLILFDOO\WKHH[WHQWWRZKLFKD SHUIRUPHUSRVVHVVHVKLJKOHYHOVRIDXWRPDWLFLW\ LH ZLWKRXW UHTXLUHPHQW IRU WRR PXFK FRQVFLRXV DWWHQWLRQ 'RXJKHUW\ DQG -RKQVWRQ  6LQJHU  and VHOIHIILFDF\

)URPDQDQHFGRWDOSHUVSHFWLYHWKHUHDUHQXPHURXVH[HPSODUVRIZKHQD refinement has not been made UHVLVWDQWDJDLQVWWKHQHJDWLYHHIIHFWVRIFRPSHWLWLYHSUHVVXUHWKHUHVXOWVRIZKLFKFDQEHFDUHHUHQGLQJ)RUH[DPSOH JROIHU&UDLJ3HUNVZLQQHURIWKH3OD\HUV&KDPSLRQVKLSODUJHO\FRQVLGHUHGWKHKLJKHVWUDQNLQJWRXUQDPHQW outside of the four Majors), undertook a VZLQJFKDQJHVKRUWO\IROORZLQJYLFWRU\LQWKHKRSHWKDWLWZRXOGLQFUHDVHKLV shot consistency. According to Perks, he ³ZDVVLFNDQGWLUHGRIEHLQJVLFNDQGWLUHG, was so frustrated with how VWDJQDQWP\JDPHKDGEHFRPHRUKRZLQFRQVLVWHQW´$OH[DQGHUSDUD5HSRUWLQJRQWKHLPPHGLDF\RI effect following the introduction of a new coach, Perks added:

I’ve been trying to do something in my golf swing, actually trying to flatten my left wrist, for about nine years, and within two swings we had it as good as I’d ever had it. So right there and then I knew we were on the right WUDFN$OH[DQGHUSDUD

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the worst mistake I made was trying to change my swing... I EHFDPHVRVFUHZHGXSWKDW, ZDVQ¶WSOD\LQJJROI anymore. I was standing over the ball and thinking mechanics, what I ZDVVXSSRVHGWRGR, ZDVSOD\LQJJROI VZLQJLQVWHDGRIJROI9HUGLSDUD

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Figure 1.

Seasonal earnings of Craig Perks on the PGA Tour

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Long-term permanency

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Coaching knowledge as ‘joined up thinking’: linking outcome to process

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Implementing skill refinement in elite-level athletes: the Five-A Model

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2QFHWKHVNLOOLVGHDXWRPDWHGWKHµ$GMXVWPHQWVWDJH¶JUDGXDOO\PRGLILHVWKHNLQHPDWLFVWRZDUGVWKHWDUJHW behaviour. Whereas the Awareness stage is dramatic in nature, the Adjustment stage is defined by small shifts

in difference. With a UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI WKH WDUJHWHG WHFKQLTXH DOUHDG\ GHOLQHDWHG DOEHLW ZLWK D relatively weak OHYHORIVWDELOLW\WKLVVWDJHIDFLOLWDWHVJUHDWHUDFFHSWDQFHFRPIRUWDQGDFFXUDF\RIWKHLQWHQGHGUHILQHPHQWZKLOH FRQFXUUHQWO\ZHDNHQLQJWKRVHRIWKHRULJLQDOYHUVLRQ,QGHHG7DOOHWHWDOREVHUYHGWKDWELVWDEOHƒDQGƒ SDUWLFLSDQWVOHDUQLQJD ƒUHODWLYHSKDVHELPDQXDOFRRUGLQDWLRQSDWWHUQLQLWLDOO\VWDELOLVHGD SDWWHUQFORVHWRƒ and then shiftedWRZDUGƒ,QSUDFWLFH&DUVRQHWDODHPSOR\HGD SURJUHVVLYHµVKDSLQJ¶PHWKRGRORJ\ EDVHGRQYLVXDODQGNLQDHVWKHWLFLPDJHU\LQIRUPHGE\DQREVHUYHGEHVWVHOIPRGHO6LPLODUO\&ROOLQVHWDO faded out the ratio of incorrect versus correct contrast drills, systematically increasing demands to demonstrate the FRUUHFWYHUVLRQ$VVHVVHGWKURXJKVHOIUHSRUWWKH$GMXVWPHQWVWDJHLVW\SLILHGE\D JURZLQJSUHIHUHQFHIRUWKHQHZ version technique and unfamiliarity with the old.

Following consistent achievement of the target technique, the ‘(Re)Automation stage’ aims to return the athlete WRH[HFXWLQJZLWKODUJHO\VXEFRQVFLRXVFRQWURO7KLVVWDJHLVVXSSRUWHGE\WKHODUJHYROXPHRIZRUNH[DPLQLQJ SHUIRUPDQFHIDLOXUHZKHQHPSOR\LQJFRQVFLRXVFRQWUROVWUDWHJLHV0DVWHUV%HLORFNHWDOD%HLORFN HWDOE0DVWHUVDQG0D[ZHOODVGLVFXVVHGHDUOLHU)URPD SUDFWLFDOSHUVSHFWLYHWKH)LYH$ Model HQFRXUDJHVUHDXWRPDWLRQWKURXJKWKHXVHRIKROLVWLFUK\WKPEDVHGFXHVFI0DF3KHUVRQHWDO0DF3KHUVRQ HWDO5K\WKPLFFXHVZKLFKVXPPDULVHWKHPRYHPHQW¶VHQWLUHW\E\HPSKDVLVLQJWKHWHPSRUDOVWUXFWXUH SURYLGHDWKOHWHVZLWKDQµDLGHPHPRLUH¶WRUHGXFHWKHLUIRFXVWRZDUGVWKHUHILQHPHQWDQGUHVWRUHVWDELOLW\DFURVVDOO FRPSRQHQWVRIWKHVNLOO7KXVUK\WKPLVD source of informationWKDWGRHVQRWRYHUO\WD[ZRUNLQJPHPRU\SHUPLWWLQJ DWWHQWLRQWRDOVREHGLUHFWHGWRZDUGVRWKHUWDVNUHOHYDQWVWLPXOL

When actions are congruently informed by auditory, kinaesthetic and visual stimuli (i.e., multisensory SURFHVVLQJQHXUDOUHVSRQVHVH[FHHGWKHVXPRIXQLVHQVRU\LQSXWVDQHIIHFWNQRZQDVVXSHUDGGLWLYLW\ (Stein and 0HUHGLWKZKLFKLVSDUWLFXODUO\DSSDUHQWZKHQWKHVDOLHQFHRILQGLYLGXDOVHQVRU\VLJQDOVZHDNHQ6WDQIRUGHW DO$SSO\LQJWKHVDPHSULQFLSOHWRPHQWDOLPDJHU\XVHWKLVZRXOGKRZHYHUEHDQLQHYLWDEOHFRQVHTXHQFH RISXUSRVHIXOO\µOD\HULQJ¶GHWDLOVSHUWDLQLQJWRGLIIHUHQWVHQVRU\PRGDOLWLHVLHUHVSRQVHSURSRVLWLRQV/DQJ &DOPHOVHWDODVGHVFULEHGZLWKLQWKHWZRSUHFHGLQJVWDJHV&UXFLDOO\KRZHYHUVXFKEHQHILFLDOHIIHFWVUHO\ RQWKHSHUIRUPHUEHLQJD FRPSHWHQWXVHURIPHQWDOLPDJHU\±ZKLFKVKRXOGQRWEHDVVXPHGIURPWKHLQWHUYHQWLRQ outset based solely on a KLJKOHYHOVNLOOVWDWXV±DQGWKHVWLPXOLPHDQLQJIXOO\UHVRQDWLQJZLWKWKHLQGLYLGXDO

,QDGGLWLRQWKH)LYH$ 0RGHOLQFRUSRUDWHVVHYHUDOHVVHQWLDOSV\FKREHKDYLRXUDODQGSV\FKRVRFLDOFRQFRPLWDQWV some within distinctly dedicated stages. For instance, as a QHFHVVDU\SUHFXUVRUWRUHILQLQJWHFKQLTXHWKHQHHGIRU DQLQGHSWKDQDO\VLVLVVWUHVVHG$VVXFKWKHµ$QDO\VLVVWDJH¶H[SORUHVDOOQHFHVVDU\URXWHVIRULPSURYHPHQWWR HQVXUHWKDWWHFKQLFDOUHILQHPHQWLVDSSURSULDWHDQGLIVRZKDWDVSHFWRIWHFKQLTXHUHTXLUHVFKDQJLQJ7KLVVWDJH EHFRPHVHYHQPRUHSHUWLQHQWZKHQFRQVLGHUHGDJDLQVWHYLGHQFHVKRZLQJUHFHLYHGZLVGRPWRQRWQHFHVVDULO\DSSO\ DWWKLVHQGRIWKHSHUIRUPDQFHVSHFWUXP%OXPHQVWHLQHWDO&ROOLQV0DF3KHUVRQHWDO6XFK UHFHLYHGZLVGRPPLJKWDSSO\LQµJHQHUDO¶WHUPVWROHVVHUVNLOOHGDWKOHWHVKRZHYHUVRPHSULRUFKHFNLVDEVROXWHO\ HVVHQWLDOWRDYRLGQHJDWLYHRXWFRPHV0LVLQWHUSUHWLQJWKHFDXVHRISRRUSHUIRUPDQFHVZKHQLWLVQRWD technical LVVXHFDQDOVROHDGWRORQJWHUPGLVDGYDQWDJHVHJSRRUFRQFHQWUDWLRQFDXVHGE\SK\VLFDOIDWLJXH&ROOLQVHWDO UHVXOWLQJLQDQDOPRVWFRQVWDQWFKDQJHSURFHVVVLQFHWKHXQGHUO\LQJFDXVHZRXOGSHUVLVW7KH$QDO\VLVVWDJH DOVRDGGUHVVHVYDULRXVSV\FKRVRFLDOIDFWRUVVXFKDVDWKOHWHµEX\LQ¶FRQILGHQFHPRWLYDWLRQDQGFRPPLWPHQWWRWKH UHILQHPHQWSURFHVV7KHVWURQJDQGIUHTXHQWLPSDFWRIH[SHFWDQF\HIIHFWVLQVSRUWSURYLGHD clear demonstration as to why movement changes must be ‘sold’ to both athletes and coaches. These factors are then reconsidered at each VWDJHE\LPSOHPHQWLQJD QXPEHURIPRQLWRULQJFKHFNVDQGSV\FKRORJLFDOLQWHUYHQWLRQVHJSURJUHVVLYHLPDJHU\

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Finally, a SURDFWLYH µ$VVXUDQFH VWDJH¶ LV LPSOHPHQWHG WR LQFUHDVH UHVLVWDQFH WR WKH QHJDWLYH HIIHFWV RI FRPSHWLWLYHSUHVVXUHFRQYLQFLQJERWKDWKOHWHDQGFRDFKWKDWWKHWHFKQLTXHQRORQJHUUHTXLUHVIXUWKHUWZHDNLQJ (VVHQWLDOSURFHVVHVDWWKLVVWDJHLQFOXGHLQFUHDVLQJOHYHOVRIVHOIHIILFDF\XQGHUVLPXODWHGFRPSHWLWLYHSUHVVXUH EXWDOVRKLJKHUOHYHODXWRPDWLRQ2QFHDJDLQHIIHFWLYHDQGRSWLPXPHPSOR\PHQWRIH[SHFWDQF\HIIHFWVLVNH\ $FFRUGLQJO\ WKH )LYH$ 0RGHO SURYLGHV ERWK WKH GHFODUDWLYH DQG SURFHGXUDO NQRZOHGJH IRU LPSOHPHQWLQJ VNLOO refinement.

Process measures for tracking skill refinement

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Kinematics

7KHXVHRIWZRGLPHQVLRQDOYLGHRDQDO\VLVLVDOPRVWXELTXLWRXVLQHOLWHOHYHODSSOLHGFRDFKLQJHQYLURQPHQWV )URPWKLVVWDQGDUGLVHGGLDJQRVWLF DQGDQDO\WLFDOSURFHGXUHV KDYHW\SLFDOO\ HPHUJHGZLWKLQVSRUWLQJGRPDLQV Indeed, coaches’ understanding of technical effectiveness normally relies on data obtained by this measure. While

the use of a video camera is definitely more beneficial than relying on the naked eye, there are, however, noteworthy OLPLWDWLRQVWKDWVKRXOGEHUDLVHGZKHQGLVFXVVLQJWKHRSWLPDOWUDFNLQJRIWHFKQLFDOUHILQHPHQW

A YLGHRFDPHUDZLOORQO\SHUPLWPRYHPHQWWREHUHFRUGHGLQD VLQJOHSODQHRIPRWLRQPRVWXVXDOO\UHTXLULQJ WKH SUHVHQFH RI D JOREDO HQYLURQPHQWDO SRLQW RI UHIHUHQFH HJ VWULNLQJ REMHFW RU ILHOG WDUJHW WR FRQGXFW DQ analysis. As such, utilising a JOREDOFRRUGLQDWHV\VWHP*&6LQRQO\RQHSODQHRIPRWLRQSUHYHQWVD functional XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHWHFKQLTXHEHLQJHPSOR\HGLHZKDWWKHLQGLYLGXDOMRLQWVRUERG\VHJPHQWVDUHDFWXDOO\GRLQJ ZKHUHE\PDQ\VSRUWLQJDFWLRQVDUHQRWOLPLWHGWRD VLQJOHSODQH±HYHQZKHQWKH\DSSHDUWREHHJORQJMXPS Therefore, one major limitation relates to the technical understanding that can be truly gained (cf. Brown et al. $ second limitation arises when longitudinal analyses are required, whereby one cannot guarantee the H[DFWUHODWLYHUHSRVLWLRQLQJEHWZHHQFDPHUDVDQGDWKOHWH)DFWRUVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKSHUVSHFWLYHHUURUPXVWDOVR EHDFFRXQWHGIRUHDFKWLPHGDWDDUHFROOHFWHG3D\WRQ&RQVHTXHQWO\WKLVPDNHVLQWHUVHVVLRQFRPSDULVRQV less reliable since there is a constant need for global reference(s).

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,IWKLVPHWKRGZHUHWREHHPSOR\HGLQDSSOLHGVSRUWVHWWLQJVFRDFKHVDQGDWKOHWHVZRXOGEHQHILWIURPPRUH detailed information regarding the anatomical motion as a ‘tool’ for both diagnosing and tracking refinement; due WR/&6V¶JUHDWHUHPSKDVLVRQWKHPRYHPHQWRIVHJPHQWVUHODWLYHWRRWKHUVHJIRUHDUPUHODWLYHWRKXPHUXVWR calculate elbow angles). From a NLQHPDWLFVSHUVSHFWLYHWKLVLVFOHDUO\ZKDWDWKOHWHDQGFRDFKshould be interested in. In summary, from a FRDFKLQJDQGNLQHPDWLFSHUVSHFWLYHXVLQJ/&6VSURYLGHVD more direct measure and IXQFWLRQDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHWHFKQLTXHEHLQJUHILQHG3UDJPDWLFDOO\DGRSWLQJ/&6VLVDGYDQWDJHRXVGXHWR fewer inconsistencies in measurement; data are less affected by variations across trials, days and environments. &RQVHTXHQWO\ZKHQWUDFNLQJWHFKQLFDOUHILQHPHQWIRUUHVHDUFKSXUSRVHVZHUHFRPPHQGDGRSWLQJ/&6VDVD gold VWDQGDUG PHDVXUH )RU FRDFKHV ZRUNLQJ ZLWKRXW VXFK WHFKQRORJLFDO FDSDELOLW\ XVLQJ D WZRGLPHQVLRQDO YLGHR camera as a ILHOGPHDVXUHLVSHUPLVVLEOHDOWKRXJKFOHDUO\QRWLGHDO

Intra-individual movement variability

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Performance outcome variability

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WKHPIRUIXOO\VHOIGHWHUPLQHGURXWLQHVDWVXEMXQLRUDQGDERYHFODVVHV7KHUHIRUHWKLVLQFUHDVHLQSHUIRUPDQFH outcome variability could be viewed as a QRQOLQHDUWUDQVLWRU\VWDJHEHWZHHQWZRFDWHJRULFDOFODVVHVVXEMXQLRU DQGVXEMXQLRUZKHQDWWHPSWLQJWRUHILQHDQDOUHDG\ZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGVHWRISHUIRUPDQFHURXWLQHV)URPDQ DSSOLHGSHUVSHFWLYHWKLVPHDVXUHZRXOGEHODUJHO\IHDVLEOHVLQFHSHUIRUPDQFHRXWFRPHLVQRUPDOO\UHFRUGHGLQ PDQ\VSRUWVHJORQJMXPSGLVWDQFHIDLUZD\VKLWLQJROIDQGVSULQWWLPHLQWKHP+RZHYHUZHKDYH\HWWR FRQILUPWKLVWUHQGWKURXJKHPSLULFDOUHVHDUFKRQDQLQGLYLGXDOEDVLVZKHQDWWHPSWLQJD technical refinement. This is VRPHWKLQJWKDWZHLQWHQGDVSDUWRIRXURQJRLQJUHVHDUFKSURJUDPPHLQWKLVDUHD

Tracking caveats

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Figure 2.

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FRQGLWLRQVDUHSUREDEO\QRWJRLQJWRUHPDLQFRQVLVWHQWWKURXJKRXWWHVWLQJ$FFRUGLQJO\ZHXUJHUHVHDUFKHUVWR sensibly consider the frequency of data collection required for their athlete and skill, with coaching decisions being based on data trends (see Figure 2).

Summary and Conclusion

7KLVUHYLHZIRFXVHGRQWKHRXWFRPHVWKDWDWKOHWHVFRDFKHVDQGUHVHDUFKHUVVKRXOGDLPIRUZKHQLPSOHPHQWLQJ GHOLEHUDWHWHFKQLFDOUHILQHPHQWVWRDOUHDG\OHDUQWDQGZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGVNLOOVLIWKH\DUHWREHFRQVLGHUHGHIIHFWLYH 7DUJHWLQJHVVHQWLDOVRINLQHPDWLFFKDQJHSUHVVXUHUHVLVWDQFHDQGORQJWHUPSHUPDQHQF\WKHVHRXWFRPHVUHIOHFW FKDQJHVRQGLIIHUHQWOHYHOVDQGWLPHVFDOHVRIPRYHPHQWRUJDQLVDWLRQEXWZKLFKDOVRDGGUHVVWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLYH FKDOOHQJHV IDFHG E\ HOLWHOHYHO DWKOHWHV QRWDEO\ VSDWLDOWHPSRUDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV EHKDYLRXU DQG FRQWURO PHFKDQLVPV1HZHOOHWDO)ROORZLQJDQRYHUYLHZRIWKH)LYH$ 0RGHOZDVSUHVHQWHG&DUVRQDQG&ROOLQV D QRQOLQHDUDQGLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\FRDFKLQJPRGHOGHVLJQHGWRIDFLOLWDWHWKHVHHVVHQWLDORXWFRPHV)LQDOO\ WUDFNLQJDQDWKOHWH¶VSURJUHVVWKURXJKWKLVPRGHOZDVDGGUHVVHGXVLQJWZRH[HPSODUPHDVXUHVWRLQGLFDWHDQ DWKOHWH¶VG\QDPLFOHYHORISV\FKRPRWRUFRQWUROLQWUDLQGLYLGXDOPRYHPHQWYDULDELOLW\DQGSHUIRUPDQFHRXWFRPH YDULDELOLW\:KLOHWKHIRUPHUKDVDOUHDG\VKRZQSURPLVLQJUHVXOWVLQWHUPVRILWVDSSOLFDWLRQGXULQJVNLOOUHILQHPHQW &DUVRQHWDOEWKHODWWHUDZDLWVIRUPDOYDOLGDWLRQIRUVXFKXVH,QDGGLWLRQGLVFXVVLRQZDVSURYLGHGWRLQIRUP EHVWSUDFWLFHDERXWPHDVXUHVWRWUDFNWKHNLQHPDWLFFKDQJHVZKHUHE\VL[GHJUHHVRIIUHHGRPPRGHOOLQJXWLOLVLQJ LCSs was considered the most direct and functionally meaningful method, even if data from three degrees of IUHHGRPDQDO\VHVLHURWDWLRQRUWUDQVODWLRQDUHUHSRUWHG$FFRUGLQJO\ZHHPSKDVLVHWKDWHYDOXDWLYHPHDVXUHV VKRXOGLQIRUPFRDFKHV¶SURFHVVRULHQWHGGHFLVLRQPDNLQJZKHQDWWHPSWLQJWRDFKLHYHHIIHFWLYHVNLOOUHILQHPHQW

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References

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