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7 InformationfromEditors

9 FRANK PRZETACZNIK, TheConceptof aGenuineandJust Peace

. . . .

MAŁGOSIAFITZMAURICE,InternationalLiabilityforInjurious Conse

-quencesofActs NotProhibitedbyInternational Law(the“LiabilityDraft” ) ANNA WYROZUMSKA, TheState Immunity inthePracticeofPolish Courts SONJA BOELAERT

-

SUOMINEN, TheInternational CriminalTribunalfor

theFormer Yugoslavia(ICTY)Anno1999:ItsPlace intheInternational LegalSystem,Mandateand MostNotable Jurisprudence

MARTIN UZO GASIOKWU,ECOWASIntervention in Liberia and Sierra

--

Leone: ANewDimensioninRegional Security System

CARLOS D.ESPÓSITO, InternationalTrade and National Legal Orders: The Problem of DirectApplicabilityofWTOLaw

CELINA NOWAK,Lesaffaires polonaises devant lesorganes delaConven

-tionEuropéennedes Droits de l’Homme

47 77 95 157 169 197 Polish Practice in International Law

1) SelectedJurisprudence ofPolish Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative CourtInvolvingQuestionsof Public and Private International Law and Euro

-pean Union Law

-

byEWA SKRZYDŁO

-

TEFELSKA

2) TheStatuteonInternationalTreaties ofthe 14th_{of April2000}

217 228

Book

Reviews

J

.

-

Y

.

CARLIER,D. VANHEULE,Europe andRefugees: AChallenge?

-

by KatarzynaStrąk

L

.

-

A. SICILLANOS,L’ONUetla démocratisation de l’État. Systèmes régionaux etordre juridiqueuniversel

-

by Dobrochna Bach

G

.

FOX, B

.

ROTH, Democratic Governance and International Law

-

by Dobrochna Bach

B. BAUER,Der völkerrechtlicheAnspruchauf Demokratie

.

Zur Rolle Interna

-tionaler Organisationen im weltweiten Demokratisierungsprozeß

_-

by Dobrochna Bach

J.

-

Y CARLIER,D

.

VANHEULE,K. HULLMAN,C. PENAGALIANO,Who is aRefugee?AComparative Case LawStudy

-

by Katarzyna Strąk

235 237 238

240 240

On behalfof the BoardofEditors we would liketoapologizeforthedelay in publishingof the volume XXIVof thePolish Yearbookof International Law

.

Be

-causeof important editorial andtechnicalproblems weweretosuspendthe workon the present volume;wewerealso unabletoincludethe current Polishbibliography

on international law, as well as the list of international agreementsconcluded by Polandand enteredintoforce during thetworecent years,and apart ofbookreviews

.

Thepublicationwasfinallymadepossiblethankstothe gracious helpof theMinistry of Foreign Affairsof theRepublicofPoland

.

We wouldliketoannounce however thattheforthcoming,XXVvolumeof the PolishYearbook will befully devotedto the integrationofPolandwiththeEuropean Union, and will containarticles bylead

-ingPolish and international scholars and practitioners.It will alsocontain actualbib -liographyandreport on thePolishpracticein internationallaw.

Warszawa,April2001

Professor RenataSzafarz,Editor

-

in

-

Chief ProfessorWładysławCzapliński,ManagingEditor

-The

Concept

of a Genuine and

Just

Peace

FRANK PRZETACZNIK'

Introduction

The object ofthis study istheanalysisofthe concept ofa genuineandjustpeace in theworksofthe majorphilosophers,political andsocial thinkersand alsoWorld War

.

Theproblemofpeaceisa veryhotandcrucial matter that now absorbs human

-ity.Reason dictates thatpeaceis and normally shouldbe a naturalstateofmankind

.

Peaceis then theprincipal preoccupation ofeveryrational andcompassionateper

-son,because thereis nota topic sodeeply affecting thehappinessof mankind,both spiritualand temporal,as the problem of a genuine and just peace.A peace isthe highestgood of individuals,peoples, nations,States,and of allmankind, provided thatit isa genuineandjustpeace.

Thepoliticalandlegalthinkers whoseworkswillbediscussed belowuseddiffer

-ent formulationsin theirexpressionsof the idea ofa genuine andjustpeace. Among these formulations are:“genuine peace,” “ real peace,” “perfect peace,” “idealpeace,” “justpeace,” “righteouspeace,” “democraticpeace,” “genuineand justpeace,” and “justanddurablepeace.”1_{Thesetermsexplicitly mean that peace should ormustbe}

“genuine” (real,perfect,orideal,which generallysignifies genuine),or“just” (right

-eousordemocratic,whichgenerallysignifies just)

.

Theauthorsalso utilize suchex

-pressions as “lasting peace,” “ enduring peace,” “durable peace,” “stablepeace,” “permanent peace,” “universal peace,” and “eternal peace.” These terms simply

mean thatpeaceshouldor mustbegenuineand justif itis tobe lastingandperma

-nent. Theterm “genuineand justpeace” is the mostfittingterm,forit best expresses theessenceofthisinstitution.2

Theindividuals,peoples and nationsof the worldhave a sacredright topeace, andits preservation is notonlythefundamental obligation of eachcountry,butalso of everyindividualintheworld,irrespectiveof nationality, sex,color,political and socialposition or status,ideology,religion,or affiliation withany political,social, cultural orreligious organization

.

A genuineand justpeaceisanachievable objec

-tive,if individuals, peoples,nations,andStatesshowaproperunderstanding ofits

AdministrativeLaw Judgein New York City.

1 _{F.P r z e t a c z n i k: “TheConcept of GenuineandJust Peaceas aBasic Collective Human Right,”}

6 New York Law School Journal of Human Rights 241(Part Two,1989).

10 FRANKPRZETACZNIK

existence in their relations,andshow a willingness to establish,maintainand pre

-serve it byappropriate

means

.

A

Definition

of Peace

Itisnoteasytocorrectlyandpreciselydefine peace,whichisoftenused in avariety ofdifferentmeanings.Although therearemany definitions of peace,nosatisfactory and generally acceptabledefinition of this institution hasbeenfound yet,and those definitions whichhave beengivenare of littlepractical value, sincetheynotdeter

-minepreciselytheessenceof a genuine and justpeace.

Negative

and

Positive

Peace

.

JohanGaltung assertsthatin “peaceresearch,asittook shape attheendof the 1950s,the debateaboutthemeaningof that veryconceptprovedtobe fruitful

.

”3_He

affirms that it“ wasevidentfrom thebeginningthattherewere twoclassesof mean

-ings:‘negative peace,’,meaning absenceof war and violence(any type ofdestruc

-tion); and ‘positive peace,’,comingcloserto integration,or union

-

withconnota

-tionsofharmony and justice,”4_{Referring to“ theRomanPax absentia belli}

_,

_”5_Galtung

says that,in otherwords, anegativeconceptofpeaceisdefinedasthe absenceofwar amongcountries.6_{Asdescribed here by Galtung, the concept of “negativepeace,”}

meaningtheabsenceofwarand violence, isabsolutely wrong.Itseemsthat Galtung does notunderstand the meaning of the word“negative

.

” Hence, it is vital atthis juncturetodetermine thepropermeaningofthe word“negative

.

”

Accordingto theWebsterEncyclopedicDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,“nega

-tive” basicallymeansimplyingorcontainingdenialornegation.7_{Similarly, pursuant} totheRandom HouseDictionary ofEnglishLanguage,“negative” signifies:(a)ex

-pressingorcontainingnegationordenial,or(b) expressing refusaltodosomething. Likewise, the ShorterOxford EnglishDictionary defines “negativeas meaningthe denialofsomething.9It isclearfromthese definitionsof theexpression that in the contextofpeacethe wording“negativepeace” literally and is substance means the non existenceof peace

.

There is nosuch thing as “negative peace

.

” Peace either exists ordoes notexist

.

If peace exists asan institution it alwaysis and must be positive

.

If thereisarmed conflict

-

becausenow one cannot speakofwar,whichis an illegalinstitution,undercontemporaryinternationallaw

-

thenthere isno peace

.

8

3 _{J. Ga 11u ng:“Peace”,in: A.K u p er andJ.Kup r(eds.),The SocialScienceEncyclopedia(1985),}

p.578.

4 _Ibid

.

,_p.578.

5 _Ibid

.

_,p.578.

6 _Ibid

.

_,p.578.

7 _{V.S.T h a t c h e r (ed.): The New Webster Encyclopedic Dictionaryof theEnglish Language(1971),}

p.56.

8 _{J.Stei n (ed.):The RandomHouseDictionary oftheEnglishLanguage(1971), p.956.}

If peacedoes not exist, then there is neither positive nor negative peace. One cannot speak of the existence of something, which does not exist at all

.

In such asituationone may merely talk about the lackof peace,but thatin no way means negativepeace.The notion of a negative peaceis the negation of itself.Thus, the notionof negativepeacedoes not make anysenseatall;it issimply anabsurdity.As usedby Galtung,“theso

_-

callednegativepeace,” where there is the absence of war andviolence,andanytype of destruction,pursuant to the mostelementalprinciples of logic andthe most basiccommonsenseobviousto everybody,is par excellence apositivepeace

.

Therefore,the absurdnotion oftheso

-

called “negative peace” must be categoricallyrejectedas confusing andevendangerous. All of thismisconception is caused by Galtung because he confuses two differentinstitutions,i

.

e

.

,international peacein a strictsensewiththe internal order ofaState.

It must bestressed thatdifferent principles apply tointernational peace and to internal order, even though some of thoseprinciples might overlap. Nevertheless, Galtung considerstheprinciplesapplicabletooneoftheseinstitutions (internalor

-der) and thenapplies themto theotherinstitution (international peace), asif these twodistinctinstitutions were the same.Galtung uses only theexpression “peace,” eventhough heclearlyspeaksoftheinternalorderof theStates.He speaksofdirect violence,which maybe appliedtotheinternational relations between Statesas well as to the internalorder within a particular State

.

Galtung alsotalks about structural violence, “but into the social structure, which is also capable of killing, but then, usuallyslowly (through hunger,misery,anddisease),” and “which is,asarule, not steeredbysome clearintention

-

it just is

.

”10_{Structuralviolenceclearlyapplies within}

the internal order

.

Galtungcontends: “ The conceptof negativepeace isextended throughthecon

-cept ofstructural violence.”11_{Heexplains that“ absence of violence” is “more than}

absenceof direct violence;it alsoimplies theabsenceof repression and alienation andexploitation,and other forms of verticalityinthe socialstructure.”12_{Thus, ac}

-cordingtoGaltung’sconcept,iftheredonotexistarmed conflict(s)betweenStates andany kind ofviolence or repressionandalienation,orany formofexploitationor alienationwithintheState(s),thensucha condition constitutes the negativeconcept of peace

.

As indicatedearlier,sucha situation,as far asinternational relations are concerned,constitutes apositive peace

.

If,however,suchahappyconditionexistsin a particularState, it must be described as thedesirable positive order, and not as anegativepeace

.

Thereisnomore sensetomakeof thenotionof Galtung’s“positive peace

.

” The components ofpositive peace,asformulatedbyhim,whichcomeclosertointegra

-tion or union,withconnotationsof harmony and justice,withoutfurtherelaboration andexplanation,donot makesense. It goes withoutsayingthatthosecomponentsof positivepeaceas theyare phrased byGaltungdo notexpressthesubstance of peace

.

1 0 _{G a l t u n g,supra,note3,p.578}.

11 _Ibid.,p.578.

12 FRANK PRZETACZNIK

Accordingly, Galtung’sconceptof

“

negativepeace” and “positivepeace,” whichis arbitrarily dividedbyartificialandoversimplified criterianotreflecting the existing reality of internationalrelations,must berejected.

Accepting uncriticallyGaltung’s

erroneous

conceptofnegativeand positive peace, Hakan Wibergtriestoexpound upon the falseconceptof negativepeace,and thus even further distorts the meaning of peace

.

Wiberg states that the“pair of terms, ‘positivepeace’and‘negative peace’havebeen with usfromthe verybeginning

.

_”

13

Heaccepts the substanceofGaltung’sdefinitionsof“negative peace” and“positive peace

.

”

“Negative peace” is defined

as

“absence of violence,[and]absenceofwar. “Positive peace” isdefinedbyWiberg in termsof“theintegrationofhuman society, andfunctionalcooperation

.

”15_{Tothosedefinitions thesamecommentsapply asap}

-plied tothe definitions of Galtung. Wiberg stressesthat he willfocus on negative peace, limiting himself“to taking uppositivepeace” which, hesays,is notas impor

-tantasnegative peace.16

Also Helmut Rumpf uncriticallyacceptsGaltung’sfalse conceptof “negative peace” and“positivepeace

.

” He asserts“Two conceptsof peacearedistinguished:

“

negativepeacedefinedas the absenceof organizedviolencebetween such human groups asnations butalsobetweenracialandethnicgroups(

..

.)and positivepeace

defined as apattem ofcooperation and integration between majorhuman groups.”17

Rumpf stressesGaltung’snegativepeacealsomeans“peaceful coexistence” andhe “views the two conceptsas empirically interrelated.”18 _{Rumpf erroneously asserts}

that for“political science,diplomacy,andinternational law, thepattemofpositive(or

material) peace alsoimplies the possibility of peaceful change as a condition for continued and truecooperation andintegration

-

animplicationoftenneglected by peacetheorizers.

Perhaps,with theexception of politicalscience,where especiallyaftertheSec

-ondWorldWar,theso

-

called“theorizers” haveengagedthemselves onlyin the most absurd and meaninglesssophistry.Indiplomacyand international law, as a practi

-tioner andscholar inbothofthesefieldsfor manyyears, I havenevermetany serious diplomatorscholarwho would assert suchabsurdity andnonsenseas“negativepeace.” Asindicatedearlier,thereis nosuchthingas“ negativepeace.” Peaceis alwaysposi

-tive,otherwisethereis notpeaceatall

.

The so-called“theorizers,” whetherthey want toornot,mustacceptthisfundamental principle

.

Otherwise,if they wouldinsiston thisabsurdity,theywould notonlymake themselvesridiculous

-

theyarefreetodo it

-

but they would alsomake ridiculouspeaceas such, whichisthe highestgoodfor

«₁₄

»19

13 _{H.W i ber g: “ JPR1964}

-

₁₉₈₀

-

_{WhatHaveWeLearntaboutPeace,” 18JPR112(No.2,1981).}

14 _Ibid

.

,_p

.

_112. 15 _Ibid

.

_,p

.

_112. 16 _Ibid

.

,_p.112.

17 _{H.Ru mp f: “ The ConceptsofPeaceand Warin International,” 27 CYBIL341(1984}).

18 _{J.Ga 11un g:“ Peace,” in: D.L. S i l l s (ed}

.

_{): 11 InternationalEncyclopediaof the SocialSciences}

(1968),pp.487

-

496.

individuals,peoples,nations andStates,providedthat it isjustandgenuine

.

There

-fore,theycannot doit.

Emphasizing thefact that the meaningof peacehas not been among themost populartopicsinpeaceresearch journals during thepasttwo decades,Paul Smoker indicates that there are differing definitions of peace.20Referring totheconceptof

“

world order,” Smokerindicates that“peaceisprimarilydefined intermsof absence of violence,economic welfare, social justice, human rights andecological balance andpartnership withnature

.

”21_{Irrespectiveof who saysit,“peacemay beconceived}

of notonlyastheabsence of physical or structuralviolence, but also positivelyas harmony between cultureandstructure.22_{Healso argues thatthe“conceptofworld}

peace, in asenseother than the absence of war,is still moredifficult.” Smoker’s absurdspeculations concerningpeaceareabsolutelyerroneousandmustbecategori

-cally rejected

.

A Proper

Definition

of Peace

Having critically analyzedsomedefinitionsof peacegiven bydistinguishedschol

-arsandhavingdemonstrated the factthat theyare unsatisfactory,

erroneous

, and among individuals,peoples,nations,andStates,the authorofthis study willattempt togive the proper definitionof peace

.

Inmyopinion,peacemay bedefinedasthe existence ofinternaltranquillitywithina State based uponthe recognition,guaranteeandstrict observation of thebasic human rights ofall individuals livingin suchaState,and normalrelations with otherStates,based uponthe mutual recognitionandobserva

-tionoftherightsand legalinterestsofeach other.23_{Accordingly,tobegenuineand}

just,peace mustsatisfy severalprerequisites.

Theseprerequisitesarethe following:(a)basichumanrights,suchasthe rightto life, theright tolive, politicalfreedom,freedom of religion,theright to work, the right toeducation, equality, freedomof expression,freedom of association, unre

-strictedfreedom ofmovementwithinthe country and therightto leaveand returnto one’s own country, mustbeguaranteed toall individuals and strictlyobserved by each State; (b)anykindofoppression

-

i.e

.

, political,economic,ideological,orreli

-gious,eitherinternalorexternal

-

ofindividualpersons,or peoples, mustbe forbid

-denby eachState, andthisprohibition must bestrictly implemented; (c)allpeoples andnations musthave therightto self

-

determination guaranteed andstrictly imple

-mentedbyeachconcernedState;(d)theoccupation,subjugation ordomination over other peoples,nations orStates by foreignpowersmustbeabolished;and(e)disputes

2 0 _{P.S m o k e r:“Small Peace," 1JPR153(No.2, 1981).} 21 _Ibid.,p

.

_153.

22 _Ibid

.

_,p.150.

23 _{P Przetac}z n_{ik:“ThePhilosophicalConceptofPeaceas a BasicCollectiveHuman Right,” 26The}

Military Law andLawof War Review363(1987);“ The Soviet TypeofPeaceful Coexistence isnotaPrerequi

-siteofPeace,” Revue deDroitInternationaldeSciences DiplomatiquesetPolitiques(referredhereafterasRev.

14 FRANK PRZETACZNIK

betweentheStates,whichconstitutea threattointernational peace, mustbesubmit

-ted by theStates involved to the International Court of Justice for their peaceful settlement

.

All these prerequisitesmust besatisfiedfora peace tobegenuine,justanddura

-ble.Otherwise,anypeaceimposedand maintainedbynakedforceisabrutal oppres

-sionof individuals,peoplesandnations

.

Suchapeace is asourceandcauseof strug

-gleofindividuals and peoplesfortheirindividualand collective human rights,andit is thecause ofwarbyoppressedpeoples, nationsorStates.The oppressed individu

-als,peoplesandnationshavetheinalienableright todemandthestrict observation of theirindividualandcollectivehumanrights,including their right toself

-

determina

-tionof peoplesandnations

.

If basic human rights

-

either individualorcollective

-

are notrecognized and strictlyimplementedbyanycountryof theworld,or bya groupofsuch countries,the prerequisitesfor theexistenceofa genuine, just and lastingpeacearenotsatisfied, andeven if,despitethis,peaceexists temporarily,suchapeaceisingreat danger,as

a result of the oppressive behaviour of such Stateor groupof States

.

Otherwise, insteadof being a genuineinstitution worthy of itsname,peace will meantheen

-slavementofpeoplesornations and crueloppressionandtyranny. Philosophersand politicaland socialthinkers aswell asstatesmen fromtheantiquity to the present timedealt withtheproblem of agenuine andjustpeace

.

Ancient Thinkers

Hesiodwasone of the first thinkers, whoexpressed the idea ofagenuine and just peace. Heasserted thatpeacemust be just,24_{forpeace withoutjustice cannotexist}

_.

However, he didnotelaborate upon theconcept of a justpeace

.

Similarly,Confucius

spokeofpreservingpeaceby upholdingthelawsof proprietyand by recompensing evil with justice.25Thus, in Confucius’ssystem of philosophy,justice was a basic prerequisiteof peace.26_{IsaiahandPindar alsoexpressed,ingeneral terms,thecon}

-ceptof a genuineand justpeace

.

Isaiahsaidthat the workofjusticeshallbepeace.27

Pindar affirmedthatpeaceisadaughterof righteousness and makesa nationgreat.28

Accordingly, he asserted thatany citizen “ whodesired prosperityfor hisstate must seektheradiantlightof high-mindedPeace,”29_{i.e.,agenuine andjustpeace.}

The ideaof genuineandjust peace

was

expressedby Thucydides inthe speech of theSpartan plenipotentiarieswhohad beensenttoAthenstoofferpeaceduringthe 24 _{G. Zampag 1ion e: TheIdea ofPeace inAntiquity(R.Dunntrans.) (1973),p}

.

_27;Prz_{eta cz nik,}

supra,note1, pp.242

-

243.

25 _No

-

_{Y on g,Park: The WhiteMan’sPeace(1948),p.58;Przet acz n ik,supra,note1,p.243.} 26 _{F.Przeta cz n i k: “ The Basic PrinciplesofPhilosophical and Legal ConceptofPeaceas a Cardinal}

HumanRight,” 75Rev.Dr.Inť l & Sei

.

Dipl,etPoi 24(1997).

27 _{Isaiah9:7; R.G arve y (ed.): AConciseTreasuryof BibleQuotations(1975), p}

.

_{116; Prz eta cz}

-ni k,supra,note1,p.243.

28 _{W.C ad w e 11: Hellenic Conceptions ofPeace(1919),p. 78.}

Peloponnesian war. He maintained that a genuine peace cannot be imposed upon vanquished opponents30_byforce

_.

_{Isocrates alsodisapproved of andrejected peace}

imposed byforce inthe formofslavery,dominationand oppression.31_{Theconcept of}

genuineand justpeacehasbeenexpressedby Marcus T.Cicero,whostronglyrec

-ommended thatoneshould always worktoward peace,buthebelieved that war might be justifiablewhen the priceof peacewasslavery.32_{Cicerowas againstthe ideaof} peaceatany priceand hetaughtthatslavery,tyranny andoppressionareincompat

-ible with agenuine andjustpeace.33LikeThucydides,Titus Livius(Livy)main

-tainedthata genuineandjustpeacecannotbeimposed byforce uponthe vanquished orweaker opponent(s)

.

Hestatedthatpeace mustbe basedupon justice,becauseonly righteouspeace, i.e

.

,a genuine and justpeace,canbelasting

.

34

Ecclesiastic Thinkers

Manyecclesiastic thinkersadvocated thatpeacemust be just and genuineand furthermore maintainedthat only such a peace canbelasting

.

ClementofAlexan

-driamaintainsthatpeace mustbe a genuine and justpeace

.

Considering that peaceis very important in the relations among individuals, and among nations,35_Clement

assertsthatpeacemust always be basedon justice,because justice is thepeaceof life andgoverns itsstability and tranquillity

.

36_{Similarly,St.Ambrose believed that peace}

must befoundedon justice.37The same positionwas taken bySt.Augustine.Inhis view,justiceis the first conditionofpeace amongnations

.

Therefore,peace basedon injustice doesnotdeservethe nameofpeace

.

38_{Hedefined justiceas thevirtuewhich}

accordstoeachand everymanwhat is hisdue

.

39

ThomasAquinasstatesthat peacemaybetrue or apparent.40_{He maintainedthat}

truepeaceexistswhere people’sdesire isdirectedto what istrulygood,41_{and it follows}

30 _{F.P r}z_{e tac}z_{ni k:“ TheBasic Ideasof thePhilosophical Concept of War and Peace,”66Rev}

.

_Dr.Int’l

& Sei.Dipl,etPol

.

297(1988).

31 _{“Isocrates” in:W.R. C o n n e r (ed.): GreekOrations(1966),p.33;F}._Prz_{et ac}z_{nik: “ Philosophical}

andLegalConceptof GenuineandJustPeace as aBasicCollectiveHuman Right,” 68 Rev

.

Dr

.

Int’l &Sei.

Dipl,etPol.98(1990).

32 _{Cicero”,in:R.Zouc h e:2 AnExposition of FacialLaw andProcedure,orofLaw between}

Nations, and QuestionsConcerningtheSame (J.L.Brierly trans.);J.B.Sc o11(ed.):The ClassicsofInterna

-tionalLaw (1911),p

.

59.

33 _{P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note26,p.24.}

34 _{“ T.Livy” , in:P.B e 1 1 i: 2 Treatiseon MilitaryMattersand Warfare (H.C.Nutting trans}._{) (1936),}

p.279;P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note31,p.100.

35 _{F.P rze tac}z n_{i k: “ TheChristianConceptof GenuineandJustPeace}”, 83Rev.Dr

.

Int’l& Sei.Dipl,

et Pol.164(1995).

36 _{Z a m p a g l i o n e,supra,note 24,p.251; Prze tac zni k,supra,note35,p.164}

.

37 _{Z a m p a g l i o n e,supra,note24,p.294;P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note26,p.25}. 38 _{St. Au gust i ne: CityofGod(G.G.Walsh and otherstrans.)(1958), p.454.}

39 _{Ibid.,p. 469;F.P r z e t a c z n i k:TheCatholicConceptofGenuineandJustPeace asa Basic}

CollectiveHuman Right(1991),p. 54.

40 _{T.A q u i n a s:2SummaTheologien(D.J.Sullivanrev.);R.M. H u t c h i n g s (ed.):GreatBooksof}

theWesternWorld(1952),p.532.

16 FRANKPRZETACZNIK

thatsuchpeacemust bebased uponjustice

.

42_{Heexplains that “ifoneman’sconcord}

[peace]withanother[is] not bya spontaneous willbutthrough being forced,as itwere, by the fearof someevil thatthreatens him, suchconcord [peace] is notreally peace, becausethe orderofeachconcordantis notobserved,butis disturbed bysomefear

-inspiring cause

.

”43_{Thissomewhatcomplicatedstatementmeansthatpeace imposed by}

forceis nota genuine peace and such peace,beingunjust,is not observed voluntarily but is merely keptbyphysical or psychological,direct

or

indirect coercion

.

44

Recognizing that peacemustbe genuine and just,MarcurinoA

.

Gattinara as

-sertedthatjusticeandpeaceweresisters(daughters ofZeus),andcould notexistfor longwithoutone another.45_{WilliamCowper expressed the hope that peaceandright}

-eousness would reignand therewould never beoppression

.

46It means that where peace and justice reignthere isno oppression.47_{Thus,heexpressestheideaofa genuine}

and just peace.Likewise, the concept ofa genuineand justpeace is advocated by

E.H.Chapin,whois againstpeaceatany price. He argues that one shouldneverbe at peace,which shames one’sconscienceandistantamount toaviolation of one’s integrity as apreson.

In modem timestheconceptof agenuineand just peacewasexpressed,among others,byPopeLeo XIII,who speaksofa true,solidandlasting peace.49_{The Pope}

alsousestheexpression “ thereal peace,” whichmeans“thepeace oforder,

thepracticalrealizationofa genuineand justpeace,PopeLeoXIIIaffirmsthat peace cannot beestablished ifit doesnot rest onthefoundation of Christian public law,

from whichcomesthe concord of rulers amongthemselvesandof peopleswith their rulers.51_{Havinginmind agenuineand justpeace, andbelieving that peacedepends}

upon persons who must have a profoundsenseof justice,52 PopePius X exhorts Catholicsto“constantly standonthesideof peaceand order” and “ doeverythingto preservetranquil peace in justice.”53

Consideringthat agenuineand justpeace isthe bestandmostdesirableposses

-sion of mankind,Pope Benedict XVstresses that we desirepeace

-

a peace as is neededby justice and isconsonantwiththedignity of peoples

.

54Healsoemphasizes that agenuineand just peace should be founded upon Christian principles of jus

-48

’»50_Asto

42 _Ibid

.

_{,p.532;P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note35,pp. 165}

-

_167. 43 _{A q u i n a s,supra,note 40,p. 530.}

44 _{P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note35,p. 165.}

45 _{J.G.R u s s e l l:Peacemakingin Renaissance(1986),p.116.}

46 _W._{Co w p e r: “ TheFuturePeace and}theGloryof the Church,” in: W. E 1i ot (ed.),45TheHarvard

Classics,Sacred Writings,Part Two(1910),p.563;P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note26,p. 25.

47 _{C o w p e r,supra,note46,p.563.}

“E.H.Chapin”,in:T.Edw ards (ed.):TheNew DictionaryofThoughts(1974),p.473.

49 _{H.C.K o e n i g (ed.): PrinciplesofPeace,Selection from Papal Documents Leo XIIIto}Pius XII

(1943),p.7.

50 _{Ibid.,p.46;Prz eta czni k,supra,note35, p}._168.

51 _{K o e n i g,supra,note49, pp.93}

-

_{94;P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note35,}pp. 168-169.

52 _{K o e n i g,supra,note49,p.123}

.

53 _Ibid,p.117.

54 _{Ibid.,p.187;P r z eta c}z n_{i k,supra,note35},p.170.

tice.55_{Likewise, having in mindagenuineand justpeace,Arthur}

_J.

_{Brown urges}

thatworldpeacemust bebasedon international justiceandgoodwill.56_{PopePius XI}

maintainsthat theonlytrue peaceisthat which unitesindividuals,peoples,nations andStatesinbrotherly love and mutual understanding.57Hecorrectly contendsthat atrue andlastingpeacecannotruleamongmenand peoplesif theyseekonlymate

-rialthings,becausemoraland spiritual values areveryessentialforpeace

.

58

Likehis predecessor,PopePiusXIIwasalsoastrongsupporterofa genuineand just peaceamongnations. He demonstrates that theworldhas aneedforpeace

-

not a peace which is not a real peace, but a peace which means an orderedharmony amongmenwhichbringssmilestothefaces of allpeoplesand nations.59_{His ardent}

desire was for“ ajust and lasting peace,” which rejoices all peoples and nations

-apeacethat joins nationsand peoplesthrough mutual brotherly love, sothat each racestrivefor thegreaterhappinessof thewholehumanfamily.60 _{Starting fromthe}

premisethata genuine peace mustbesupportedbytheloyal andsincere consentof allpeoples,and must excludeadoublestandardof morality and justicefor thegreat and small or for thestrong and weak States,

John

C. Murray stresses that such a peace must be foundeduponjustice,moral principlesoffriendly relations andaspirit of brotherly collaboration.61

Asto a genuineand just peace, MilesH

.

Krumbine asserts: “To wagea ‘just peace’nowis theonly alternative towaging

a

devastatingwarlater

.

”62_Startingfrom

Isaiah’saphorism that“ theeffectofrighteousness will bepeace,”63_Krumbinemain

-tains that achieving justice[theword we prefertoday torighteousness]is theonly way toensurepeace,becausepeace becomes possibleonly when justiceflourishes.64

Theconcept.ofagenuineandjust peace found itsexpressionintheEncyclicalLetter

Pacem in Terrisby Pope

John

XXIII, who advocated the establishment of “ true peaceonearth” based upon the observation of humanrights

.

He maintained thattrue peace must be founded upon on order an orderbasedon truth, built according to justice andputintopracticein freedom.65_{ReferringtoPope John XXIII’s Encyclical}

Letter Pacem inTerris,GiovanniBenelli states thatthebasic requirements forpeace arejustice,freedom,educationandarespectfor fundamentalhuman rights

.

66

5 3 _{K o e n i g,supra,note49,p. 308;P r z e t a c z n i k, supra, note35,p.170.}

56 _{C.S.M a c f a r l a n d: Pioneers forPeaceThroughReligion(1946),p.17.} 37 _{K o e n i g, supra,note49,p. 342;P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note39,p.58.}

38 _{P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note35,p.171.}

39 _{K o e n i g,supra,note49,p.708.}

60 _{Ibid.,p.554; P r z e t a c z n i k}

,supra,note35,p.171.

61 _{J.C.M u r r a y and TheEthics Committee:ThePatternforPeace andthe PapalPeaceProgram,}

AReport oftheEthics Committee(1944), p.10.

62 _M.H

.

_{K r u m b i n e: TheWill to Peace(1956),p}

.

₅₁

.

63 _{Isaiah32:17in: H.G.}

May and B.M

.

M e t z g e r(eds.):TheOxfordAnnotatedBible(1962),p.861.

64

K r u m b i n e,supra,note62,pp.50and56;Przetacz n ik,supra,note35,p.174.

65 _{Pope J o h n XXIII: Pacem in Terris/PeaceonEarth(W.J.Gibbons ed.) (1963),p.57}

.

66 _{PermanentObserverMissionof theHolySee totheUnited Nations: PathtoPeace:A Contribution,}

18 FRANKPRZETACZNIK

Pope PaulVI alsoadvocated theidea of agenuineandjustpeace. Like hispred

-ecessor,John XXIII,PopePaulVIstates thatthereisadirect relationbetweenhuman rights and peace.67_{Accordingly,hemaintainedthatwithout the recognitionandim}

-plementationofhuman rights, atruepeace can never be achieved.68_Theconceptof

agenuineand justpeaceis dealt with by Jacques Fougerat, whoalsoasserts that peaceis connectedwiththerespect forhuman rights.69_{Accordingly,sothata genu}

-ineandjustpeacecanexist and bepreserved,humanrightsmustbeexpresslyrecog

-nized, and strictly implemented by everyState of the international community

.

70

Asimilaropinionon a genuine and just peace was expressedbyGiuseppe M.Sensi

whoinsiststhatatruepeacemustbebasedon justiceand ontherecognition of hu

-man rights71

Theconceptof genuineandjust peaceisstronglyadvocated byPopeJohnPaul II,whoshowsthat therearefew topics onwhichso muchfalsehoodis spokenofas

peace,andfewtopics which aresosusceptibletomanipulation

.

72_{Inhisopinion,this}

is a serious threatto peace. Pope John Paul II indicates that one of thedangerous threatstopeace resultsfrominequalityin the possession of materialgoodsandthe enjoyment of them

.

Suchinequality contains within itself substantialelementsthat restrictor violatehumanrights.73_{ThePopecontendsthat foragenuineand just peace,}

it isnecessarythatallpersonsin everycountryshouldbeabletoeffectively enjoy all their human rights. Peace comesonly when humanbeingsstrive fortruth andlovein theirdealing withoneanother.74_{Finally,he states thatpeopleswantpeace withjus}

-ticeandnotpeaceatany price.75

An interesting concept, of a genuine and just peace is expressed by Manuel Obando y Bravo.Referringtotheactivitiesoftotalitarian regimes, Obando yBravo states that it “ iscommon toimposepeace, to‘pacify’ acountry with aformidable army,withexecutions [and] prosecution.”76_{Hecorrectlyassertsthatpeace cannever}

by imposed by anyone, and he isabsolutely right when hesays that peaceshould createjoy, not fear,it should stimulate fellowship, not provoke hate.77 _{Obando y}

Bravocorrectly insists that peace cannot be imposed, bought or sold,but must be sought;it has to bemolded,and onemust makesacrifices forpeace. Heconsiders thata genuineandjust peaceinsuresthepositivegrowthofmanyasanindividual,as a member of afamily anda citizen ofacountry.Finally,ObandoyBravoinsists that there can be no peacewithoutjustice.78

67 _{Ibid.,p. 60;Przetac}z_{n ik,supra, note 35, p.175}.

PO.M.H.S

.

,p. 78;P r z eta cznik,supra,note39,p. 62.

69 _{PO.M.H.S.,p.144;Prz eta cznik,supra,note39,p.64.}

70 _PO

.

_M.H.S.,p._144;Przetacz_{nik,supra,note35,p.177.}

71 _PO.M.H

.

_{S., p.141.}

72 _{Ibid.,p.53;Prz etac}z n_{ik,supra,note 35, p}.₁₇₇. 73 _{P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note39,p.64.}

74 _{Ibid.,p.64;PO.M.H.S}

.

_{,p.53;ibid.,p. 85}. 75 _{PO.M.H.S.,p.370.}

76 _{M. O b a n d o y B r a v o:“PeaceinNicaragua,” TheNew York Tunes,25 April1983, p.A17.} 77 _Ibid.,p.A17.

78 _{Ibid.,p.A17;P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note 39,p.66.} 68

Agostino Casaroli isaverystrong supporter ofagenuineandjustpeace. Recog

-nizingthatpeaceisnever astate ofperfectionachievedonceandforall,but Casaroli demonstrates that a balance of thissortremainssubject topossible changesof posi

-tionsby those concerned,whoarefree to choose itor call it intoquestion,when basic conditions,uponwhichpeace is established,change substantially.79_Casaroli

asserts that peace imposed by victorson the vanquished would be nothing more than an apparent peace

.

80_{InCasaroli’sview,alastingpeacecan onlybebuiltuponjustice}

_.

81

Itfollows from the aboveconsiderationsthat ecclesiasticthinkersconsider that peace must be genuine and just. Thus,they madesubstantial contributionsto the develop

-ment ofagenuine and justpeace

.

Renaissance

and Modern Thinkers

Many renaissance and modem thinkers considered that peace,to last, must be genuine and just

.

Pierino Belli maintained that there can be no peace apartfrom justice,because justiceandpeacehave “ kissed” eachother.82_{Hence,he argued that}

peacemust begenuineand just.63_{Similarly,Richard Paceadvocatedthat a peace}

must be peace with justice.84_{The ideaof ajustpeaceisalsoexpressed by theBohe} -mian King,George.InhisTreatiseon the Establishment of Peace Throughout Chris

-tendom, the Bohemian monarch stated: “ The cult of peace is unthinkable without justice(...)becausepeaceisbomof justiceandis upheld by it.”85_{He explainsthat}

“becauseweand oursubjects cannot subsistinpeacewithout justice, we linkjustice withthe causeof peace

.

The concept of a genuine and just peaceis dealt with by Blaise Pascal, who

maintained thatmenhavefailed to establisha universal principleof justice which, alonecould guaranteepeace

.

87

Jean J

.Rousseauexpoundedon theideaof agenuine andjustpeace

.

In Rousseau’sphilosophicalsystem,peace and justiceare inseparably connected.88_{Therefore,hedisapproved peacewhich is notjust,and he indicated that} menareconstantlycryingabout“peace andtranquillity theyenjoyintheir irons,and thatmiserrimanservitutem pacemappellant (miserableservitudeiscalledpeace)

.

”86 ”89 79 _P.O

.

_M

.

_H

.

_S

.

_{,p.172;Przetacz ni k, supra,note39,p.67.} Ibid

.

,p.67;P.OM.H

.

S.,p.172. 81 _{P.OM.H.S.,p.172.} 82 _{B e l l i,supra,note34,p.278.} 83 _{P r z e t a c z n i k, supra,note35,p.180.}

R u s s e l l, supra,note45, p. 56;Prz eta cznik,supra,note35,p.180.

85 _{G e o r g i u s, BohemiaeRex:“PerpetuaePacis Constituendae Gratia Proposuit[Treatyon the Estab}

-lishment of Peace Throughout Christendom,I.Dvoraktrans.],MetrykaKoronna(Warszawa n.d.),Archiwum GłówneAktDawnych,p.85.

Ibid.,p.85.

87 _{E.V.S o u l e y m a n:TheVisionofWorldPeace in Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century France}

(1941),p.56;Przetacz ni k, supra,note35,pp. 180

-

181.

J.J.R o u s s e a u: “ FromtheSocialContract,” in:S.Co m min s and R.N.L ins c o11(eds.): The

World'sGreatThinkers,Man and the State: The Political Philosophers(1947),p.275.

J.J.R o u s s e a u:“DiscourseUpontheOrigin and the Foundationof Inequality Among Mankind,”in: C. E1iot (ed.): 34TheHarvard Classics(1910),p.221.

80

84

86

88

20 FRANK PRZETACZNIK

Healso affirmed correctlythat the peace ofdespotism and the sweetnessof liberty cannotgotogether

.

90

Starting fromthepremisethatademandforpeaceis a demand for justice,equal rightsand universal liberty,WilliamPennassertedthat without liberty peaceisim

-possible.91_{Hence,hesaid that peace requires justice betweenand withinnationas.}92

Believing thatjusticeisthepreserver and procurerofpeace,Penn assertedthat “jus

-ticeisthemeansof peace,betweenthegovernmentand the people

.

”93_{Hence, in his}

view, peaceis the truest effectof justice

.

94 _{Benjamin Franklin advanced a very}

interestingconceptof a genuineandjust peace, whenhe said“thereneverwasagood war,_orabadpeace.”95_{Franklin’s maxim that every peaceis alwaysgood maysound}

plausible,but insubstance it iserroneous.

Frankliniswrong, because the history of international relationshasdemonstrated that therecan be imposed an oppressive and repressive peace which is unjust and evil. A peace which imposes domination,oppression,exploitation and theslaveryof individuals,peoplesand nations,isa repressiveorderkeptby nakedforce,andisnot a peaceatall,because it is not establishedwith the consentof all parties involved. Accordingly, Franklin’s rigid maxim concerning peace is not only erroneous, but evendangerous, becauseitsstrictapplication in practice might bringmoreharm than good.Therefore,it must be rejected

.

Thesameideain a differentformulation is phrased byMarkTwain, whoexpressesit in the following phrase:“An ingloriouspeaceis

betterthan adishonourablewar.”96_{ObservationsonFranklin’sconcept of peace ap}

-plyequallytothatof Twain.

Charles Mauriceof Talleyrand advocates a genuineand just peace when he says that nothing matters except peace, but it must not be peace at any price,but peace withhonor.97_{Likewise,Pierre}

-

_{AndreGargazinsisted that in orderforpeace}

to be form and lasting, it isabsolutely necessary that its terms be just

.

98 _August Comtecontended that peace concluded and enforced by oppressive rulersis not a genuineand just peace.99_{Thesame ideais expressed by LouisKossuth, whoaf}

-firmedthat oppression must notbeconfusedwithpeace,becauseina genuinepeace there is no placeforoppression.*00_{He is right, because peace and oppression are}

diametricallydifferent conditions,andaremutually exclusive. 90 _Ibid,p

.

₂₂₂.

91 _W._{Pe n n:An AssayTowardsthe Presentand Future PeaceofEurope}(1912), p.4.

92 _{The William Penn TercentenaryCommittee (comp.): Remember William Penn 1644}

-

_{1944,A Tercentary}

Memorial(1945),p.123. 93 _Ibid.,p

.

_126.

94 _{P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note35,p.181.}

95 _{S.Brad1 y,R.C.B e a t t y andE}._H._{L o n g (eds.):1The American Tradition in Literature}(1967), p.277.

96 _{D.La w son (ed.):TheFightersforPeace(1971), p.38.} 97 _{J.J.B e r n a r d: Talleyrand,A Biography (1974),p.570}.

P.A.Gar g az: “ A Project ofUniversaland Perpetual Peace(1782),” in: E.Wy n ner andG.L1 oyd:

SearchlightonPeace Plans(1949),p.29.

99 _{P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note31},p.107.

Ibid,p.107;Przetacz ni k.supra,note35,p.183.

98

Contemporary

Thinkers

Many contemporary thinkers believethatpeacemustbegenuine and just

.

Start

-ingfrom thepremise that peaceisa greatgood, Theodore Roosevelt asserts that peace may be good, but it must also be righteous, for unrighteous peace may be worsethan

war

.

101_{Hesaysthat peaceis generally goodin itself, butit is only the}

highest goodif itis just. Peacewhichservesmerely as amask andinstrumentfor despotism and oppression,becomesaveryevil condition.102_{Theideaof agenuine}

and justpeace is dealtwith byWilliamH. Monroe,whoassertsthatpeacemust be based upon justice, for apeacewhich isnot based onjusticeis not a truepeace

.

GeorgeK,_{Shawalso advocates the concept of}agenuine andjust peace

.

Starting from theidea thatthere isnoenduring basisfor peace savethe mutualrespect be

-tweennations, Shaw believesthatpeacecan breed peace if itisbasedupontheright motives.Thecornerstonefor such a peace is justice

.

104_{Accordingly,tomaintainand}

preserve peace,nations mustpursuea policy ofjustice.105Aninterestingconcept of a genuineand justpeaceis expoundedupon byWilliam

J

.

Bryan,whoshows thatthe

concept ofpeaceby terrorism, i.e

.

, peace imposedbyforce, has failed

.

106_Heshows

that peace must begenuineandjust and thatanoppressiveorderimposedand keptby nakedforce is not a peacebutanegationofpeace.

DavidS

.

_Jordan

alsoadvocates the somewhatvague concept ofa genuineand just peace

.

Heaffirmsthatonemustcontrast thepeaceofforcewiththepeaceoflaw,

the peace whichis temporary with thepeace thatiseternal,solong asitrestsonthe balanceofjustice

.

108_{Jordanusesvagueexpressionssuchas“peaceofforce,” “peace}

of law,” “balanceof justice,” and “universal order,” but he does not definethese expressions,which may denote differentthingstodifferentpersons

.

Therefore, Jor

-dan’s concept of peaceof law without itsdefinition andfurtherspecification is of littlepracticalutility inarriving foragenuine and justpeace

.

CharlesE

.

Jefferson

states thatan armedpeaceisnota genuine and justpeace.

In 1916,byarmed peacehemeantthepolicy ofinternational lifeinEurope duringthe last hundredyears. Jefferson explainedthatthemotto ofarmedpeacewas

“

prepared -ness,” andits creedwas“in timeofpeace,preparefor war.”109_{In his view, the funda}

-mental assumption of the policy of armed peace was false, for militarism makes a constant appeal to forceand armaments arethe creation of fear.110Accordingly, Jefferson maintainsthat an armed peaceis fatal because it plays into the handsof

103

107

101 _{W.H.Har a u gh:TheWritingsofTheodoreRoosevelt(1967),p. 28.}

P r z e t a c z n i k,supra, note31,p.108.

W.H.M o n r o e:“WarandPeace:TheMilitaryPointof View,” in:M.K.R e e I y:SelectedArticleson

World Peace(1914), p

.

131;Przetacznik,supra, note 31,p.108.

G.B.S h a w:“The Basis of Enduring Peace,” ThePeaceForum (March 1913),pp. 42

-

43.

Ibid.,p

.

42.

W.H.T a f t and J.Brya n: WorldPeace,AWrittenDebate between(1970),p.29. P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note35,p.185.

D.S.J o r d a n:WarandWaste(1913),p. 288.

C.E.J e f f e r s o n: What Armed PeaceLeadsTo(1916), p.137.

Ibid

.

,pp

.

151, 156and 158

.

102 103 104 103 106 107 108 109 no

22 FRANKPRZETACZNIK

only a few men, who, because of the structureof modem society,

are

capable of unmeasurable mischief

.

111_{Jefferson is rightthatan armed peace,asit}

_was

_understood

in thenineteenthandatthe beginning of twentieth century, wasnotagenuine and just peace.

Having in mind a nefarious and oppressivepeace,

James

M.Beckaffirmsthat the preservation ofapeacethat isbased uponfear cannot beeither durableorjust, for such a peace would generally mean theacquiescenceof weakerStates to the de

-mands,often unjust, of stronger powers

.

112Beck believes that a genuine and just peace is that which, in therelations between States, is based upon justice, mutual respectand fairdealingand,whenthere is anyinternational dispute betweenthem, it issettled byaninternational tribunal.113_{WilliamE.Wilsonmaintains thata genuine}

peace must be compatiblewith justice

.

114_{Hesaysthatif peacewerepreserved, but}

freedomsuppressed,itwould beamean peace,forit would notbepeacewith jus

-tice.115

Theconcept of a genuine and justpeaceexpounded upon byWoodrowWilson

inhisaddressto theU

.

S

.

Congresson22January1917,whereinhe outlinedtothe world hisconcept ofaproperpeace settlement,i.e.,apeacethat wouldwin theap

-provalof mankind.116_{AccordingtoWilson, agenuine and justpeacewouldbesuch,}

apeace, whichwouldguarantee notonlythebasic human rightsof individualswithin itsterritory byeveryStateof the world, butalso therightsofindividualswithinall territories by every State

.

117_{Heinsisted thatthe only lastingpeace is}

_one

_wherethe

very principleof it is equality and

common

participation in the

common

good. Wilsonbelieved thatthe basic prerequisitefora genuineand justpeaceis the strict recognition andthe rigorous implementation byeveryStateof thebasic humanrights ofindividuals

.

Similarly, FelixMłynarskiinsists that a condition of peace shouldbe the princi

-pleof justice

.

120_{Heasserts thathumanitymustestablish a peace in whichcalm and}

justicewillreign.121Similarly,HamiltonHoltaffirmsthat peace must bewith jus

-tice.122ReferringtotheFrench Declarationof theRightsofMan,whichset downfor allmankind the principlesof justice,123_{LeonBourgeois maintained that agenuine}

118

119

111 _Ibid,p

.

₁₆₀.

112 _{J.M.B e c k:The WarandHumanity (1916),pp.34-35.} 1.3 _Ibid,p.39.

1.4 _W

.

_E

.

_{W i l s o n:TheFoundationofPeace(1918),p.96.} 115 _Ibid,p._112.

116 _{President W i 1s o n’s: “Senate Address onPermanent Peace,}”in: 10 CurrentHistory,TheEuropean War1090(1917);P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note31, p.109.

117 _{P T Z E T A C Z N ik,supra,note31,p.110}.

W i l s o n,supra,note116,p.1091. 119 _{P r z e t a c z n i k,supra,note31,p. 110.}

F.Mł y n a r s k i:TheProblemsofthe Coming Peace(1916),p.11.

121 _Ibid,p.165.

122 _{H.H o 11: “ The WaytoDisarm:APracticalProposal,}” 5TheChurch and InternationalPeace4(1916).

123 _L.Bou r_{geo is:“ The Reasons for theLeagueofNations,}” in: F.W.H a b e r m a n (ed.):Peace,

NobelLectures,1901

-

1925(1972),p.308.

118