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A philosophy of yacht design

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A PHILOSOPHI OF YACHT DESIGN b y OLIN J . STEPHENS I I My p h i l o s o p h y , i f i t d e s e r v e s t h a t name, i s a p r a c t i c a l o n e , s o my d i s c u s s i o n w i l l b e p r a g m a t i c a n d d e s c r i p t i v e . I ^ o p e t h a t I h a v e l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g o v e r t h e y e a r s , a l t h o u g h I am n o t s u r e t h a t t h e d e s i g n s o f t h e s e v e n t i e s a r e a n y b e t t e r t h a n t h o s e o f t h e t h i r t i e s . H o v j e v o r , I s h a l l t r y t o s u g g e s t some o f t h e c h a n g e s i n m e t h o d a n d p h i l o s o p h y t h a t I h a v e s e e n s i n c e I b e g a n t o w o r k p r o f e s s i o n a l l y i n 1 9 2 8 . I n r e t r o s p e c t , a p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n a p p l i e d a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s , w h i c h h a v e a l s o d e v e l o p e d a n d c h a n g e d a s t i m e h a s p a s s e d . As w e l l a s I c a n r e c a l l , s u c h p r i n c i p l e s w e r e a p p l i e d q u i t e u n c o n s c i o u s l y , i . e . , t h e e a r l y d a y s w h i l e t h e d e s i r e t o i m p r o v e o n e ' s w o r k demanded a n a l y s i s l a t e r o n . I n y o u t h , c o n f i d e n c e came e a s i l y . R e c o g n i t i o n o f a s e a r c h f o r t h e b e s t w a y f o l l o w e d l a t e r . I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o l l o w s , I s h a l l c o m p a r e m e t h o d s w h e r e I c a n , so a s t o r e v i e w t h e r e s u l t s o f c h a n g i n g p a t t e r n s o f w o r k a s t i m e h a s p a s s e d . The f o c u s h a s b e e n a g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g e m p h a s i s o n a n a l y s i s a s i t h a s r e p l a c e d i n t u i t i o n as a d e s i g n t o o l . To t h e w r i t e r , t h i s d i r e c t i o n h a s s e e m e d c o r r e c t a n d i n e v i t a b l e i n t h e l i g h t o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e a n d c o m p u t i n g p o w e r , b u t i t m u s t b e g r a n t e d t h a t i n a c o m p e t i t i v e f i e l d , a n d one t h a t i s e v e n h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l , a n a l y s i s h a s o f t e n y i e l d e d t o i n t u i t i o n a s t h e w a y t o s u c c e s s . The m e t h o d s o f p r o c e d u r e a n d e x a m p l e s d i s c u s s e d h e r e a r e p r i m a r i l y d i r e c t e d t o w a r d e v a l u a t i o n o f a n d i m p r o v e m e n t i n s a i l i n g y a c h t p e r f o r m a n c e i n w h i c h s e n s e t h e y a p p l y m o s t d i r -e c t l y t o r a c i n g y a c h t s i n w h i c h s p -e -e d i s t h -e p r i m a r y d -e s i g n o b j e c t i v e . Y e t , some u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d e s i g n f a c t o r s a s t h e y may i n f l u e n c e s p e e d i s u s e f u l i n a n y d e s i g n i f o n l y i n p r o v i d i n g b e n c h m a r k s f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f n e e d e d c o m p r o m i s e s s u c h a s r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r t h a n n o r m a l d i s p l a c e m e n t o r l e s s t h a n n o r m a l d r a f t , o f t e n n e e d e d i n a c r u i s i n g y a c h t . T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e e m p h a s i s i s o n p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e w e l l b e h a v e d c r u i s i n g y a c h t m u s t b e s e e n a s j u s t as i m p o r t a n t a s t h e w i n n i n g r a c e r . 90

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E x p e r i e n c e o n t h e w a t e r f r o m my y o u n g e s t d a y s l e d me t o y a c h t d e s i g n a n d I n e v e r c o n s i d e r e d a n y o t h e r v o c a t i o n . When I v/as v e r y s m a l l , my f a m i l y h a d m o t o r b o a t s on L a k e G e o r g e , i n New Y o r k S t a t e , b u t a f t e r t h e f i r s t W o r l d War, we s p e n t o u r summers o n s a l t w a t e r a n d we a l l became s a i l o r s . My b r o t h e r , Rod, a n d I , e a c h i n h i s way, became a d d i c t e d t o s a i l i n g a n d t o s u c h t e c h n i c a l f a c e t s o f t h e s p o r t a s we c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d . V/e h a v e w o r k e d t o g e t h e r s i n c e t h a t t i m e a l t h o u g h Rod d i d n o t j o i n o u r f i r m u n t i l 193^, a n d v/e h a v e b e e n f o r t u n a t e i n h a v i n g g e n e r a l l y c o m p l i m e n t a r y t a l e n t s so t h a t w h e r e my t e n d e n c y t o g e n e r a l i z e m i g h t h a v e m i s s e d d e t a i l s , he h a s a p p l i e d h i s i n t e r e s t a n d t a l e n t i n a way t h a t was a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y , a n d v / h i c h I n e v e r c o u l d h a v e d o n e . W i t h a m i n d a n d a n e y e f o r d e t a i l , he h a s s p e c i a l i z e d i n h u l l a n d r i g c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d s h i p y a r d i n s p e c t i o n w h i l e I h a v e l o o k e d a f t e r g e n e r a l d e s i g n a n d a d m i n i s -t r a -t i o n w i -t h a s p e c i a l i n -t e r e s -t i n h u l l l i n e s . We h a v e , I t h i n l r , t a c i t l y h e l d a common p h i l o s o p h y s t e m m i n g f r o m o u r e a r l y s a i l i n g t o g e t h e r . Wo h a v e e n j o y e d f a s t , l i v e l y a n d r e s p o n s i v e b o a t s w h i c h , h o w e v e r , m u s t h a v e b e e n s t r o n g a n d s a f e . We h a v e r e s p e c t e d t h e f o r c e o f w i n d a n d w a t e r a n d we h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e l i m i t a t i o n s e x i s t i n g i n t h e s t r e n g t h o f b o a t b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s . N o t w i t h o u t d i f f i c u l t y a n d e r r o r , we h a v e t r i e d t o c o m b i n e s t r e n g t h , r e l i a b i l i t y a n d p e r f o r m a n c e . We h a v e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d a s a i l i n g y a c h t a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t e n t i t y t o t h e g r e a t e s t e x t e n t p o s s i b l e , t o w h i c h e n d , c o m p l e x i t y s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d . To a c h i e v e s u i t a b l e r e s u l t s , we h a v e t r i e d t o a v a i l o u r s e l v e s o f t h e m e s t m a t e r i a l s a n d w o r k m a n s h i p . T h e s e h a v e b e e n t a r g e t s n o t a l w a y s h i t . Our s a i l i n g b e g a n i n s m a l l d a y b o a t s a n d w e n t o n t o a c r u i s i n g p h a s e . A b u l k y c r u i s i n g k e t c h may h a v e c o n d i t i o n e d o u r d e s i r e f o r s p e e d , a n d we s t a r t e d r a c i n g , f i r s t i n a s m a l l , l i g h t one d e s i g n s c h o o n e r , t h e n i n a n o l d e r s i x m e t r e f r o m w h i c h we w e n t o n t o o f f s h o r e r a c i n g , f i r s t w i t h v a r i o u s o w n e r s a n d t h e n i n o u r own DORADE. H e r s u c c e s s i n w i n n i n g t h e T r a n s - A t l a n t i c a n d F a s t n e t R a c e s i n 1931 b r o u g h t u s o t h e r c o m m i s s i o n s e v e n d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f f i n a n c i a l d e p r e s s i o n .

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Rod a n d I b o t h s t u d i e d n a v i g a t i o n a n d r a c i n g t a c t i c s , w h i l e I was h a p p i e s t s t e e r i n g a n d Rod t o o k c h a r g e o f t h e f o r e d e c k a n d c r e w . T h i s a g a i n made a g o o d c o m b i n a t i o n e n a b l i n g u s t o g e t t h e m o s t o u t o f o u r own d e s i g n s , s o m e t i m e s a f t e r o t h e r s h a d f a i l e d .

The f i r s t b o a t s o f S p a r k m a n & S t e p h e n s d e s i g n came o u t i n 1929. F r o m t h a t y e a r t h r o u g h 1935, o u r S i x M e t r e s a n d o f f s h o r e b o a t s w e r e h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l a n d i n 1936, o u r o f f i c e was a s k e d t o c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h S t a r l i n g B u r g e s s o n a new J G l a s s d e s i g n f o r H a r o l d S. V a n d e r b i l t w h i c h became RANGER, We b o t h w o r k e d o n t h e p l a n s a n d s a i l e d i n t h e a f t e r g u a r d . G i l b e r t W y l a n d j o i n e d o u r f i r m a f t e r s e r v i n g a s C h i e f D r a f t s m a n o n t h e RANGER p r o j e c t . A g a i n we w e r e f o r t u n a t e n o t o n l y i n h i s s o u n d t e c h n i c a l a b i l i t y a s a g r a d u a t e o f t h e Webb I n s t i t u t e o f N a v a l A r c h i t e c t u r e , b u t a l s o i n h i s p r a c t i c a l p h i l -o s -o p h y w h i c h made h i s a i m s t h e same a s R-od's a n d my -own. B e f -o r e j o i n i n g S p a r k m a n & S t e p h e n s , G i l h a d w o r k e d i n t h e f i e l d o f p o w e r y a c h t s a s w e l l a s w i t h t h e E l e c t r i c B o a t Co., a c o n t r a c t o r t o t h e N a v y , a n d h i s a b i l i t i e s i n t h a t a r e a l e d d i r e c t l y i n t o s m a l l v e s s e l w o r k f o r t h e N a v y D e p a r t m e n t a s t h e w a r a p p r o a c h e d . I t i s o n l y a s t h i s i s w r i t t e n t h a t I r e a l i z e how l o n g we w o r k e d f o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e p e r i o d l a s t e d a l m o s t t w e n t y y e a r s b e g i n n i n g i n 1939 a n d e n d i n g i n t e r m s o f a n e n l a r g e d o f f i c e i n 1958. D u r i n g t h a t t i m e , o u r o f f i c e s t a f f n u m b e r e d e i g h t y t o o n e h u n d r e d t e c h n i c a l p e o p l e , w h i l e t h e n o r m a l y a c h t w o r k h a s b e e n h a n d l e d b y a much s m a l l e r g r o u p o f f r o m e i g h t t o t w e l v e p e o p l e . My p a r t n e r , D r a k e S p a r k m a n , was a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e f i r m ' s b a c k g r o u n d , w h i c h I h a v e r e v i e w e d h e r e . A l t h o u g h h e was l i t t l e i n v o l v e d w i t h o u r d e s i g n s , t e c h n i c a l l y h i s p o s i t i o n was i m p o r t a n t b o t h p r a c t i c a l l y a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y . A g o o d s a l e s m a n , who i n v a r i a b l y s e r v e d t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t o f h i s c l i e n t s , h e h a d c o n f i d e n c e i n o u r d e s i g n s a n d a s C h i e f E x e c u t i v e o f o u r f i r m , h i s j u d g m e n t was c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d s o u n d . D r a k e a n d I became p a r t n e r s i n 1928 a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d S p a r k m a n & S t e p h e n s t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . My t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g was a l m o s t n i l a s I h a d s p e n t l e s s t h a n a y e a r a t M . I . T . a f t e r g r a d u a t i n g f r o m h i g h s c h o o l . I h a d s t u d i e d a n d p r e t t y w e l l

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a; wr: a b s o r b e d some o f t h e s t a n d a r d b o o k s on t h e s u b j e c t o f n a v a l a r c h i t e c t u r e , s u c h a s Atv;ood, a n d ' ^ i t e , as w e l l as S k e n e on Y a c h t D e s i g n . I was an a v i d r e a d e r o f t h e y a c h t i n g m a g a z i n e s is w e l l as b o o k s on b o t h r a c i n g a n d c r u i s i n g a n d t h e E n g l i s h - - i t e r and s a i l o r , C l a u d W o r t h , was an a u t h o r i t y I a l m o s t w h o l l y a c c e p t e d . I t i s h a r d t o e v a l u a t e h i s i n f l u e n c e t o d a y as o u r v i e w s o n t e c h n i c a l m a t t e r s a r e now f a r a p a r t a l t h o u g h I t h i n k we w o u l d s t i l l s h a r e t h e b a s i c p h i l o s o p h y t h a t t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n i s t h e o n l y s o l u t i o n . T h u s , he h e l p e d t o d i r e c t me i n t h e r i g h t way. I n t h e c o n t e n t o f my e a r l y r e a d i n g , I c a n n o t h e l p n o t i n g t h a t t h e E n g l i s h y a c h t i n g p r e s s was t h e n a n d I t h i n k s t i l l i s , o r i e n t e d i n a more t e c h n i c a l d i r e c t i o n t h a n t h a t o f t h e U.S.A. t h r o u g h , m o s t o f t h i s p e r i o d , a l t h o u g h no l o n g e r . A m e r i c a n d e s i g n c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d e q u i p m e n t , a n d e v e n h a n d l i n g i n many c a s e s , h a s b e e n a t a h i g h t e c h n i c a l l e v e l . T h i s seems a s t r a n g e p a r a d o x . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , i n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s , I h a d t e c h n i c a l g r a s p o f t h e s t a t i c s o f y a c h t d e s i g n , b u t I was t o t a l l y i n t u i t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o d y n a m i c s , more a d v a n c e d t h a n t h e w o r k o f W i l l i a m F r o u d e and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f u p r i g h t r e s i s t a n c e f r o m m o d e l s , o r T a y l o r ' s s t a n d a r d s e r i e s . I d i d n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e d r a w i n g e x c e p t t h e d r a w i n g s o f l i n e s w h i c h I h a d d o n e s i n c e my e a r l y t e e n s w i t h a g o o d d e a l o f c a r e as t o b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e e n d s as w e l l as f a i r n e s s a n d a p p e a r a n c e . I n my m i n d , t h e n a n d now, a q u a l i t y o f s w e e t n e s s seemed t o mean a g r e a t d e a l . I u s e t h o T h r a s e "seemed t o " b e c a u s e l o o k i n g b a c k a t t h o s e o f t h e o l d d e s i g n s w h i c h w e r e b u i l t t o a r u l e s u c h as t h a t o f t h e S i x M e t r e C l a s s , I c a n see t h a t I d i d t h e n , as I s h o u l d do now, l o o k ^ a r d a t t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e so as t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f i t s p r o v i s i o n s . As a s t a t e m e n t o f b e l i e f , o r p h i l o s o p h y , I h a v e h e l d t h a t a g o o d d e s i g n came f r o m a g o o d c o m b i n a t i o n o f f e a t u r e s , r a t h e r t h a n a n y s i n g l e m i n d e d a p p r o a c h . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , one c h a r a c t e r i s t i c may d o m i n a t e one b o a t " a n d a n o t h e r show u p i n a c o m p e t i t o r a n d y e t t h e c o m r e t i t i o n b e t w e e n v e r y d i f f e r e n t r a c i n g y a c h t s may be v e r y c l o s e .

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I h a v e t r i e d a l w a y s t o r e s p e c t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f p e r f o r m a n c e i n t h e m o s t b a s i c s e n s e b y l o o k i n g a t t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n a y a c h t ' s d r a g a n d t h e p o w e r o r d r i v i n g f o r c e . 'What-ever c o u l d d e c r e a s e t h e one o r i n c r e a s e t h e o t h e r s h o u l d be a p a r t o f t h e d e s i g n . T h i s a t t e n t i o n t o b a s i c s h e l p s n o t o n l y i n t h e s e a r c h f o r i m p r o v e m e n t , i t a l s o demands t h e b a l a n c e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e s u c h a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f a g o o d d e s i g n . T h i s e a r l y p h i l o s o p h y was s o u n d b u t s i m p l i s t i c . Good p r i n c i p l e s w e r e o b s e r v e d . T h e s e c a l l e d f o r s w e e t a n d w e l l b a l a n c e d l i n e s , a f a i r c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n s a i l c a r r y i n g p o w e r a n d t h e b e s t p r a c t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s a i l a r e a t o w e t t e d a r e a . I b e l i e v e d i n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p r i s m a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t n o t so much as a n a b s o l u t e v a l u e b u t a s a b a s i s o f c o m p a r i s o n . I f t o o l o w , h i g h s p e e d p e r f o r m a n c e was l i m i t e d a n d a c r e s t i n g wave came u p ' o n t h e w e a t h e r q u a r t e r . Too h i g h a v a l u e seemed t o

i n c r e a s e r e s i s t a n c e a t t h e n o r m a l w i n d w a r d s a i l i n g s p e e d s . R i g s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o b e c l e a n a n d s t r o n g a n d f u l l a d v a n t a g e was

t a k e n o f w i n c h e s w h i c h w e r e j u s t c o m i n g i n t o g e n e r a l u s e o n s m a l l e r b o a t s . I h a d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f w h a t a y a c h t s h o u l d b e . The d e s i g n was i n t e n d e d t o embody a p r e e x i s t i n g f o r m . I n t h i s

s e n s e , t h e w o r k was i n t u i t i v e . A m a j o r s t e p t o w a r d a n a l y s i s w h i c h I t o o k i n t h e e a r l y d a y s was m o d e l t e s t i n g . I was a c q u a i n t e d w i t h D r . K e n n e t h D a v i d s o n d u r i n g t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f h i s w o r k w h i c h became t h e m a i n s u p p o r t f o r my d e s i g n d e v e l o o m e n t t h r o u g h f o r t y y e a r s . A l s o , t h e w o r k w i t h K e n D a v i d s o n was a g r e a t h e l p p e r s o n a l l y a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r a s e r i o u s l a c k o f f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n . R e c e n t y e a r s h a v e h r o u g h t new v i e w s o f t h e p l a c e o f m o d e l s i n y a c h t d e s i g n w h i c h I s h a l l t o u c h o n b e l o w . D u r i n g t h e m o s t r e c e n t d e c a d e , t h e c o m p u t e r h a s p l a y e d a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t r o l e . I h a v e a c c e p t e d i t s p r o m i s e g r a t e -f u l l y . A p h i l o s o p h y o -f y a c h t d e s i g n m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h e com-p u t e r a s a com-p r i m a r y t o o l . The com-p o w e r i t com-p r o v i d e s m u s t b e u s e d t h o u g h t f u l l y . By i t s n a t u r e , i n t u i t i o n i s h a r d e r t o d e f i n e o r e x p l a x n t h a n a n a l y s i s , s o i t may b e w o r t h a d d i n g t h a t t h e u s e o f i n t u i -t i o n i s n o -t n e c e s s a r i l y u n s c i e n -t i f i c , a n d i -t i s c e r -t a i n l y n o -t

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a n t i - s c i e n t i f i c . S u r e l y t h e i n t u i t i v e d e s i g n e r u s e s a l l t h e t e c h n i c a l "know how" he c a n , b u t h i s c o m p a r i s o n s a r e q u a l i t a -t i v e r a -t h e r -t h a n q u a n -t i -t a -t i v e . A new d e s i g n w i l l be p l a c e d o v e r an o l d e r one t o see w h e t h e r t h e l i n e s a r e l o n g e r o r s h o r t e r , o r t h a t d i s p l a c e m e n t o r w e t t e d a r e a i s more o r l e s s . - I f w e t t e d a r e a i s l e s s , i s l a t e r a l p l a n e t o o s m a l l ? S u c h a n d s u c h a b o a t had a n e q u a l l y s m a l l k e e l and s a i l e d w e l l t o w i n d w a r d so t h e s m a l l k e e l s h o u l d be o.k. Or maybe v / e t t e d a r e a i s l e s s and d i s p l a c e m e n t m o r e . J u d g m e n t h a d t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r t h i s was f o r b e t t e r o r f o r w o r s e . T o d a y , we h a v e n u m b e r s t o s u p p o r t t h e j u d g m e n t , b u t a c c e p t i n g c o m p e t i t i o n as c l o s e , c a n we r e l y on t h e n u m b e r s ? T o d a y , I w o u l d do so b u t I c o u l d w e l l be w r o n g . A l t h o u g h , t h r o u g h i m p a t i e n c e , I p a s s e d up a g o o d o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s c h o o l i n g , I h a v e a l w a y s t r i e d t o be w e l l i n f o r m e d . My m e e t i n g w i t h D r . K e n n e t h D a v i d s o n j u s t as he was s t a r t i n g t h e w o r k w h i c h made h i s a p i o n e e r i n a n a l y t i c a l y a c h t d e s i g n was m o s t f o r t u n a t e f o r me. H i s p r o j e c t t h e n was t h e t e s t i n g o f s m a l l m o d e l s w h i c h h s h a d s t a r t e d i n t h e c o l l e g e s w i m m i n g p o o l i n w h i c h he t o w e d a m o d e l y a c h t , m e a s u r i n g t h e u p r i g h t d r a g . The m e t h o d s t h a t he d e v e l o p e d h a v e b e e n f u l l y t r e a t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y R e f . ( 1 ) . T h r o u g h t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f m o d e l s , d e s i g n s a n d a c t u a l f u l l s c a l e y a c h t s ( p r i m a r i l y GIMCRACK), i t was p o s s i b l e t o h e l p w i t h t h i s p r o j e c t and a r a t h e r c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n d e v e l o p e d w h i c h t a u g h t me a l l I c o u l d a b s o r b p e r s o n -a l l y -a n d p u t o u r o f f i c e i n -a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d e s i g n d e v e l o p m e n t t h r o u g h m o d e l t e s t i n g . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , D a v i d s o n ' s w o r k m a r k e d a l o n g s t e p i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a n a l y s i s b u t I am a f r a i d t h a t my b i a s t o w a r d i n -t u i -t i o n and c o m p a r i s o n p o s -t p o n e d -t h e a c c e p -t a n c e o f p r e s e n -t m e t h o d s w h i c h a r e more f u l l y a n a l y t i c a l . A l s o , I was e a r n i n g my b r e a d a n d b u t t e r as a y a c h t d e s i g n e r , w o r k i n g f o r i n d i v i d u a l c l i e n t s , who w a n t e d s p e c i f i c y a c h t s , i n e a c h c a s e f o r some r a r t i c u l a r c l a s s o r p u r p o s e . T h i s i s why n o t h i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a s t a n d a r d s e r i e s was done u n t i l t h e r e c e n t j o i n t w o r k o f P r o f e s s o r s Ne^mian, K e r w i n a n d G e r r i t s m a ( R e f . 2 ) .

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C o n t r o v e r s y e x i s t e d i n t h e t h i r t i e s as i t h a s d o n e m t h e s e v e n t i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e v a l u e o f s m a l l m o d e l t e s t i n g . I n my o p i n i o n , D a v i d s o n i n t r o d u c e d , i n a p r a c t i c a l a n d u s e f u l way, t w o m a j o r s t e p s . F i r s t , t h e s m a l l e c o n o m i c a l m o d e l s p r o v i d e d u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n and s e c o n d , a r e l i a b l e m e t h o d b a s e d o n m o d e l r e s u l t s was d e v e l o p e d t o c a l c u l a t e w i n d w a r d p e r f o r m a n c e a t s a i l i n g s p e e d s . As i t o c c u r r e d , d o w n w i n d p e r f o r m a n c e was o v e r -l o o k e d , p a r t -l y t h r o u g h p e r s o n a -l b i a s a -l t h o u g h t h e r e -l a t i v e -l y h e a v y I n t e r n a t i o n a l R u l e b o a t s . S i x e s a n d T w e l v e s , s a i l e d a l m o s t s i d e b y s i d e d o w n w i n d a n d t h e e v e n h e a v i e r o f f s h o r e r a c e r s h a d s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . So t h e e m p h a s i s was o n w i n d w a r d w o r k a n d t h e t a n k p r o v i d e d a n s w e r s t h a t s t o o d t h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n c a l c u l a t i o n a n d c o m p e t i t i o n . I t h i n k i t i s f a i r t o s a y t h a t a l l o f t h e p r e s e n t m e t h o d s o f p e r f o r m a n c e p r e d i c t i o n s t e m f r o m Ken D a v i d s o n ' s w o r k . The p l o t o f s a i l c o e f f i c i e n t s now h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d t o a p p a r e n t w i n d a n g l e s up t o 180 d e g r e e s a n d t h e c o m p u t e r h a s a u t o m a t e d t h e p l o t t i n g . T h e s e s t e p s h a v e made i t p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r a l l c o n d i t i o n s o f w i n d s t r e n g t h a n d s a i l i n g a n g l e . I b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s p r e d i c t i v e a b i l i t y h a s a d d e d a d i m e n -s i o n t o y a c h t d e -s i g n m e t h o d -s w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a p p r o a c h . So f a r , t h e d e s i g n e r ' s w o r k h a s n o t b e e n s i m p l i f i e d . C o n v e r s e l y , new p o s s i b i l i t i e s h a v e b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d a n d now a n y new d e s i g n s h o u l d be c h e c k e d f o r p e r f o r m a n c e . The b y p r o d u c t s o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e a r e p r o b a b l y more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e s p e e d c a l c u l a t i o n i t s e l f . T h a t i s , t h e s t r u c t u r i n g o f a p e r f o r m a n c e p r o g r a m n e c e s s a r i l y c a u s e s t h e d e s i g n e r t o r e v i e w a n d e v a l u a t e a l l t h e s p e e d r e l a t e d f a c t o r s . T h i s b r i n g s u s b a c k t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s . U n d e r s t a n d i n g i s i n c r e a s e d e v e n i f t h e f i n a l p r e d i c t i o n i s w r o n g . I s h o u l d l i k e w i t h a l l my h e a r t t o p u t a f e w w o r d s i n t o t h i s p a p e r t h a t w o u l d j u s t i f y t h e t i m e s p e n t i n l i s t e n i n g o r r e a d i n g , a n d w h i c h w o u l d r e p a y t h e c o m p l i m e n t t h a t t h e o r g a n -i z e r s h a v e done me b y t h e -i r -i n v -i t a t -i o n t o t a k e p a r t -i n t h -i s m e e t i n g . My e x p e r i e n c e h a s shown me no s i m p l e r u l e s , a n d

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m o s t s u r e l y no s e c r e t s . I h a v e o f t e n t r i e d t o d i a g r a m a d e s i g n p a t h , b u t n e v e r b e e n s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e r e s u l t s ,

i t i s t o o much o f a c h i c k e n a n d egg a f f a i r . The l o g i c seems a l w a y s t o become c i r c u l a r a n d t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t m u s t be made b y e x p e r i e n c e d c o m p a r i s o n o r i n t u i t i o n a r e c o n t r o l l i n g . A f t e r m a k i n g some p r e t t y i m p o r t a n t a s s u m p t i o n s , l o g i c c a n t a k e o v e r i f d e s i r e d i n t h e f o r m o f a c o m p u t e r , and a c o n s i s t e n t s e t o f d i m e n s i o n s w i l l r e s u l t . One p o s s i b l e s e q u e n c e f o l l o w s : 1. L e n g t h - assumed 2. D i s p l a c e m e n t / L e n g t h r a t i o - assumed 2 . 1 D i s p l a c e m e n t 3. Beam - assumed as a n a p p r o p r i a t e B/L 4. D r a f t 5. A p p r o x i m a t e h u l l w e i g h t demanded b y 1, 2 a n d J . 6. A p p r o x i m a t e w e t t e d a r e a c o n s i s t e n t w i t h 1,2,3 a n d 4. 7- A p p r o x i m a t e s a i l a r e a c o n s i s t e n t w i t h 2, 4, 6. 7.1 R i g H e i g h t . 8. A p p r o x i m a t e r i g w e i g h t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h 7. 9. A p p r o x i m a t e b a l l a s t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h 2, 5 a n d 8. 10. BM c o n s i s t e n t w i t h 1, 2.1, 3 and 4. 11. L o c a t i o n o f B f r o m 2.1 a n d 4. 12. L o c a t i o n o f G c o n s i s t e n t w i t h 4, 5 a n d 9. 15. GM c o n s i s t e n t w i t h 10, 11 a n d 12. 1 4 . S t a b i l i t y f r o m 7 a n d 15. 15. D e p e n d i n g o n r e s u l t s , m o d i f y p a r a m e t e r s a n d l o o p . N o t e t h a t t h e s u b j e c t i v e e l e m e n t h a s n o t b e e n e l i m i n a t e d a n d n o t e a l s o o t h e r a s s u m p t i o n s c o u l d be t a k e n a s b e g i n n i n g s a n d many o t h e r p a t h s c o u l d be t a k e n t o t h e e n d .

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An a c t i v e , p r a c t i c i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n o r i n d i v i d u a l w i l l n o r m a l l y make b e t t e r u s e o f c o m p a r i s o n w i t b e x i s t i n g k n o w n d e s i g n s a n d w i l l u s e s t e p s s u c h a s t h o s e d e s c r i b e d p r i m a r i l y t o l i s t c o n s i s t e n c y r a t h e r t h a n as a w o r k i n g d e s i g n t o o l . H e r e a d i s t i n c t i o n s h o u l d b e made b e t w e e n w o r k i n g p r a c t i c e and d e s i g n s t u d y o r p h i l o s o p h y . As a s t u d y t o o l , a p r e d i c t i v e a l g o r i t > ^ m l e a d s t o s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s w h i c h c a n o f f e r t h e means o f a n s w e r i n g t h e many o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e o p t i m i -z a t i o n o f p r o p o r t i o n s a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n s a r e o f c o u r s e t h o s e t o w h i c h t h e a n s w e r s a r e u n c e r t a i n and t o t h e b e s t o f my k n o w l e d g e , we do n o t f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s t h o s e b e t w e e n beam a n d r e s i s t a n c e , h e e l a n g l e a n d e v e n w e t t e d a r e a . T h i s i s t o s a y t h a t v a l u a b l e as s p e e d p r e d i c t i o n s may b e , t h e i r u s e i s a g a i n c i r c u l a r j u s t as i s a d e s i g n p r o g r a m . T h e r e a r e v e r y f e w f i x e d p o i n t s i n t h e p r o c e d u r e . J u s t as d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s m u s t b e b e l a n c e d , so m u s t b e t h e d e s i g n e r ' s a t t a c k o n h i s p r o b l e m . He m u s t u s e a l l h e b e l i e v e s as h y p o t h e s e s t o e s t a b l i s h a d e s i g n a n d p r o c e e d c o n f i d e n t l y , w h i l e y e t r e m a i n i n g a l e r t t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n a new c o n t e x t , t h e m o s t f i r m l y h e l d b e l i e f s may b e u p s e t . An i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f t h e w r i t e r ' s d e s i g n p h i l o s o p h y h a s b e e n a n i n t e r e s t i n r a t i n g r u l e s . A n a t u r a l c u r i o s i t y a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s h a p e , s i z e a n d p e r f o r m a n c e h a s l e d t o a l i f e t i m e o f r u l e a c t i v i t y . W h i l e one h o p e s t h a t t h e s p o r t h a s b e e n h e l p e d t o some d e g r e e , a l l t h a t c a n b e s a i d w i t h c e r -t a i n -t y i s -t h a -t r u l e w o r k h a s p r o v i d e d a v e r y v a l u a b l e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e . I n a t e c h n i c a l s e n s e , one i s f o r c e d t o r e a c h d e c i -s i o n -s o n a l l t h e i m p o r t a n t -s p e e d r e l a t i o n -s h i p -s a n d t h e n -s e e t h e d e c i s i o n s t e s t e d . My p r i n c i p a l c o m p l a i n t i s t h a t m o s t c r i t i c s f a i l t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e l i m i t e d a n d o f t e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y e v i d e n c e on w h i c h many d e c i s i o n s h a v e t o b e b a s e d . B a d r e s u l t s come m a i n l y f r o m l a c k o f k n o w l e d g e r a t h e r t h a n i n t e n t i o n . R u l e c o m m i t t e e w o r k makes o n e t h i n k . As w i t h d e s i g n d e c i s i o n s .

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one m u s t h a v e c o n f i d e n c e w i t h o u t s t u h h o r n n e s s . I t seems w o r t h n o t i n g h e r e t h a t t h e p r e d i c t i v e m e t h o d seems i d e a l l y s u i t e d t o t h e p u r p o s e o f r a t i n g . The f a c t t h a t s p e e d i s p r e d i c t e d u n d e r v a r y i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n p l a c e o f a s i n g l e number c a l l e d a r a t i n g s h o u l d make a d j u s t m e n t s e a s i e r t o a p p l y a n d c o n t r o l a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n d e s i g n a n d s p e e d s h o u l d be more e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e d . A f u n d a m e n t a l l y i m p o r t a n t p o i n t a b o u t r a t i n g r u l e s w h i c h s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d h e r e i s t h e d u a l n a t u r e o f any p o s s i b l e r u l e . F i r s t , t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s m u s t be d e f i n e d and t a k e n . The m e t h o d i s l i k e l y t o h a v e an i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e b o a t ' s s h a p e . T h e n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e c o m b i n e d b y f o r m u l a , a s t e p v / h i c h b r o a d l y i n f l u e n c e s p r o p o r t i o n s . M e a s u r e m e n t s h a v e become many a n d c o m p l i c a t e d i n an e f f o r t t o a v o i d p u t t i n g g r e a t p r e s s u r e on p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t s a n d t o t h e w r i t e r , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l t a k i n g o f f o f t h e l i n e s w i l l come as t h e n e x t l o g i c a l s t e p i n r u l e d e v e l o p m e n t . When t h e l i n e s become a v a i l a b l e t o t h e com-p u t e r , a s com-p e e d com-p r e d i c t i n g f o r m u l a c a n be a com-p com-p l i e d , com-p o s s i b l y i n t h e f o r m o f a n a l g o r i t h m as i n t h e A m e r i c a n MHS, b u t I t h i n k p r e f e r a b l y i n a f o r m u l a , p o s s i b l y a T a y l o r s e r i e s w h i c h m i g h t be made t o e s s e n t i a l l y r e p r o d u c e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e d i c t i v e a l g o r i t h m and y e t be more r e a d i l y t r a n s p a r e n t i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . A l t h o u g h some o f my c o l l e a g u e s i n r u l e s t u d i e s f i n d a p p e a l i n a r u l e w h i c h i s h a r d f o r t h e d e s i g n e r t o p e n e t r a t e , I p r e f e r a r u l e w h i c h i s as e a s y as p o s s i b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d and a p p l y so as t o o p e n t h e f i e l d o f d e s i g n as w i d e as p o s s i b l e and t h u s e n c o u r a g e d e v e l o p m e n t as w e l l as w i d e p a r t i c i p a t i o n . To r e p e a t , I w i s h I c o u l d w r i t e a more u s e f u l p a p e r . A l t h o u g h t h e g e n e r a l i t i e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o d i s c u s s , t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l d e s i g n s seem t o come f r o m a f o r t u n a t e c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r o p o r t i o n s and d e t a i l s . S u c h a c o m b i n a t i o n s u r e l y c a n be c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t e d t h r o u g h a n a l y s i s b u t o n l y f u l l y a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e r i g h t f e e l i n g . The r i g h t f e e l i n g m u s t be f e d b y a n a c c u r a t e k n o w l e d g e o f h y d r o d y n a m i c s , s t r u c t u r e s and a l l t h a t g o e s i n t o a y a c h t . I t h i n k a g o o d p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e o f s a i l i n g i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l .

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Y a c h t d e s i g n a n d y a c h t d e s i g n e r s h a v e b e e n v e r y g o o d t o me. I h a v e p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r e c i a t e d t h e g e n e r o s i t y o f t h e p r o f e s -s i o n a l -s o c i e t i e -s a n d t h e a c a d e m i c -s o c i e t y w h i c h I -s l i g h t e d a -s a y o u n g e r man. I am f u l l y a w a r e o f t h e g a p s i n my k n o w l e d g e a n d t e c h n i c a l e q u i p m e n t . T o d a y I recommend a l l t h e s c h o o l i n g o n e c a n g e t . B u t more i s n e c e s s a r y t h a n e v e n t e c h n i c a l a n d p r a c -t i c a l k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h I s a y k n o w i n g -t h a -t I c o u l d h a v e done b e t t e r w i t h t h e g r e a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d e n e r g y . I t i s e a s i e r t o v i s u a l i z e t h e w o r k t h a t s h o u l d b e done t h a n t o do i t . U n d e r s t a n d i n g i s c u m u l a t i v e a n d t h e s t u d y t h a t c a n b e made now p r o v i d e s a s t e p t o w a r d t h e f u t u r e . U n d e r s t a n d i n g m u s t be a p p l i e d w i t h c o n f i d e n c e a n d d r i v e , a n d v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e b e s t c u r r e n t w o r k m u s t b e s t u d i e d a n d a p p l i e d . M a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l i n g w h e t h e r i n s i m p l e o r c o m p l e x t e r m s c a n b e r e v e a l i n g . The t o t a l o f a l a r g e number o f s m a l l f i g u r e s h a s a l w a y s s u r -p r i s e d me. The c o m b i n a t i o n o f a n u m b e r o f s m a l l i m -p r o v e m e n t s i n a d e s i g n h a s a s i m i l a r , l a r g e e f f e c t . E n t h u s i a s m a n d t h e s t e a d y e f f o r t t o p u t t o g e t h e r s m a l l g a i n s c a n l e a d t o t h e b r e a k t h r o u g h . T h a t m e t h o d may n o t b e e a s y b u t i t w o r k s . O l i n J . S t e p h e n s I I R e f . (1) E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d i e s o f t h e S a i l i n g Y a c h t , SNAME T r a n s a c t i o n V o l . 4 4 , 1936. R e f . ( 2 ) T e s t R e s u l t s o f a S y s t e m a t i c Yacht H u l l S e r i e s J , G e r r i t s m a , G.Moeyes and R.Onnink

Symposium Yacht A r c h i t e c t u r e , 1977.

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