The Journal of the Institute of Metals and Metallurgical Abstracts, January 1944; The Journal of the Institute of Metals, Vol. 70, Part 1; Metallurgical Abstracts : general and non-ferrous, Vol. 11, Part 1 - Digital Library of the Silesian University of T

P .

9 9

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INDEX TO VOLS. 26-63. See p. xviii.

The Journal o f the

INSTITUTE OF METALS

and

METALLURGICAL ABSTRACTS

WOJSKOWY IN STYTUT TECHNICZNY

/ V

'lu j.K h ,' 7 ^ ^ , u / V

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PAGE X V

956. Damping Capacity at L ow Stresses in Light Alloys and Carbon Steel, with Some Examples o f Non-Destructive Testing.

The late L . Frommer and A . Murray i Discussion on Milbourn’ s Paper (N o. 953) 51

JANUARY 1944 In this issue:

New Year Message from the President

Copyright Entered at Stationers’ Hall

'Precision

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The Journal o f the

INSTITUTE OF METALS

J A N U A R Y , 1 9 4 4

CONTENTS

P A G E

A New Year Message from the President xv Institute News and Announcements . xvii Meetings of Other Societies . . . xx Appointments Vacant . . . . xx 956. “ Damping Capacity at Low Stresses

in Light Alloys and Carbon Steel, with Some Examples of Non- Destructive Testing.” By the late Dr.-Ing. L. Frommer and

A. Murray . . . . 1

Correspondence on Milbourn’s Paper

(No. 953) . . . 51

Metallurgical Abstracts . . . 1-36

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E t ^

See : Second R epo rt o f the O xygen Sub- Com m ittee of the Iron and Steel Institute, Part 6A .

v The lllustration shows part only of the com plete apparatus and demon- strates the way in w hich G . and T . are keeping abreast of modern research.

L O N D O N M A N C H E S T E R G L A S G O W E D IN B U R G H K e m b le S t ., W . C . 2 1 9 C h e e th a m H ill R d ., 4 4 5 R e n fr e w S t ., C .2 7 T e v i o t P la c e , 1

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T h e m a in te n an ce m en a re n o t Lad s o f th e L im e lig h t.

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A N E W Y E A R M E SSA G E

F R O M T H E P R E SID E N T

I ^{h a v e} again this year the privilege o f addressing a New Year Message

to the members o f the Institute o f Metals, and I do so with particular pleasure because, despite the difhculties inherent under war conditions, the Institute has once again com e through a most successful period, and finds itself increasingly well placed to be o f service to its members when the transition from war to peace takes place.

In m y message last year, I ventured to suggest that before many months had passed we should see “ the victorious results o f the long period o f patient planning and concentrated effort which the United Nations had been devoting to the task o f defeating the Axis Powers.” N ow , at the dawn o f a new year, we can, in fact, look back on the year that has just passed and record an almost unbroken series o f successes for the Allied arms in every ąuarter o f the globe.

Throughout this heartening time, the non-ferrous metals industry has continued to be o f outstanding im portance to the country’s war effort, and it must surely be an encouragem ent to those w ho are engaged in the industry, whatever their position m ay be, to feel that they have played so vital a part in helping to achieve the victory w hich will not now be long delayed.

In all this work the Institute o f Metals has taken its place, and it is satisfactory to be able to record that not only have there been more than 200 new members elected during the past year, but that the Institute has now the record membership in its history o f over 2500. This has been achieved despite the fact that, ow ing to the circumstances o f war, more than 400 members have been either temporarily or permanently lost to the Institute.

Th e financial position continues to be increasingly satisfactory, and ensures that when peace comes, fuli advantage can be taken o f the changed conditions to render the Institute o f even greater service to its members than it has been hitherto.

In this connection, members will be interested to know that the Council have been giving continuous attention to the problem s w hich will face the Institute w hen hostilities cease, for they are w ell aware that it must continue to play an increasingly im portant róle in the non-ferrous metals world.

W ith this in mind, they have appointed an “ Exploratory Com mittee ” to review the w hole o f the activities o f the Institute, and to consider how best to extend its usefulness to its members and to the metallurgical in­

dustry as a whole. A notice in regard td this appears in the present issue o f the Journal, from w hich it will be elear that the Council are anxious to avail themselves o f the help and ideas o f the younger members, whose task it will be in the years to com e to carry on the work and traditions o f the Institute.

T o all the members o f the Institute, whether at hom e or overseas, and especially to those w ho are temporarily deprived o f freedom owing to war conditions, I w ould like to express m y heartfelt good wishes for the New Year, and for the tasks that lie ahead both in war and peace.

XV

President.

TheJournal of the Institute of Metals

SUBJECT INDEX

VOLS. X X V I-L X II I

In the Press

T h is v o lu m e w ill be read y early in F eb ru ary and copies m ay then b e o b tain ed o n ap plication to th e Secretary o r th ro u g h an y b o o k seller.

T h e in d ex is a co m p lete g u id e to the P ro ceed in gs o f the In stitute fro m 1921 to 1938, and to M etallu rg ical A b stra cts fro m 1921 to 1933. TJ T h e co m p an io n N a m e Ind ex v o lu m e is alread y a vailab le at th e sam e price.

iv + 3&7 pages— i j j - Post Free

T H E I N S T I T U T E OF M E T A L S

4 Grosvenor Gardens, London, S .W .l

THE INSTITUTE OF METALS

President :

L ieu t.-C olon el S ir J O H N G R E E N L Y , K .G .M .G ., G .B .E ., M .A .

Secrełary: Editor o f Publications:

G . S H A W S C O T T , M .S c ., F .C .I .S . L ieu t.-C olon el S . C . G U E LL A N , T .D .

A dministrative and Editorial Offices: Telephone:

4 G R O S Y E N O R G A R D E N S , L O N D O N , S . W .l S L O A N E 6:

January,1944.

Annual General Meeting.

No t i c e is hereby given that the

36th Annual General Meeting o f the Institute o f Metals will be held at No. 4 Grosvenor Gardens, London, S .W .l, on Wednesday, the 15th day o f March, 1944, at 11 a.m., for the purpose o f considering the Report of Council for the year ended December 31, 1943, and the Treasurer’s Report and Statement o f Accounts to June 30, 1943 (to appear in the February issue of the Journal); o f electing Officers and Members of Council and Auditors for the year 1944-45; and o f transacting the ordinary generał business of the Institute reąuired to be dealt with at such meeting.

B y Order o f the Council, G. Sh a w Sc o t t,

Secretary.

January 1, 1944.

May Lecture, 1944.

Sm Ha r o l d Sp e n c e r Jo n e s, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., the Astronomer Royal, has accepted the Council’ s invitation to deliver this year’s May Lecture.

His subject will be ‘ ‘ Metals in the Stars.” The lecture will be delivered on Wednesday, May 17, in the Hall o f the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (by the courtesy o f the Council o f the Institution).

Honorary Members.

Si r Wm. La w r e n c e Br a g g, O.B.E., M.C., M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Cavendish Professor o f Experimental Physics, Cambridge, has been elected by the Council as an Honorary Mem- ber. He is President o f the Institute o f Physics and a May Lecturer, hav- ing given the 25th annual discourse to the Institute o f Metals in 1935 on

“ Atomie Arrangement in Metals and Alloys.” His father, the late Sir William H. Bragg, was also an Honorary Member and May Lecturer.

An Honorary Member has now

been appointed by the Council in each o f the four principal United Nations :

China : Her Excellency Madame

Ch i a n g Ka i- Sh e k.

Great Britain : Sir La w r e n c e Br a g g.

United States o f America : Dr.

Ir v i n g La n g m t j i r.

Union o f Soviet Socialist Repub- lics : Professor P. Ka p i t z a.

Other Honorary Members and the countries that they represent are :

France : Professor A. M. Po r- T E V IN .

Sweden : Professor C. A. F. Be n e- d i c k s.

Committee on Futurę Policy.

The Council has appointed a Sub- Committee to examine and report upon the activities o f the Institute and the possibility o f their expansion so as to give better service to its members and to the metallurgical industry as a whole.

The members o f the Sub-Com- mittee will be : Sir John Greenly, Dr. W. T. Griffiths, Sir Ronald Charles, Mr. G. L. Bailey, Mr. W . F.

Brazener, Dr. Maurice Cook, Mr.

Roosevelt Griffiths, Mr. A. J. Murphy, and Mr. H. S. Tasker.

The Sub-Committee will value con- structive suggestions from members, and each one will receive careful and sympathetic consideration. Sug­

gestions should be addressed to the Secretary.

Honorary Council Membership.

B y virtue o f a reciprocal arrange­

ment between the Councils o f the Institute o f Metals and the Iron and Steel Institute, the President for the time being o f each Institute becomes an Honorary Member o f Council of the other Institute.

xvii

News and Announcements

Subject Index to the Journal Vols. 26-63.

Within the next few weeks, copies will be available of the Subject Index to the Journal Volumes 26 to 63, publication of which has been delayed by the war. The index covers the papers published in the Journal be­

tween 1921 and 1938 and the abstracts between 1921 and 1933. Members who possess the Journals for these years, or a substantial part o f them, will find that the Index provides a valuable key. Those members and others who placed orders when the publication of the Index was first announced, will receive copies as soon as they come from the press. The price o f the volume is 15s., post free, and new orders should be sent to the Secretary without delay. The com- panion Name Index, which appeared early in 1940, is still available, also price los., post free.

The Nomenclature of Alloys.

The report o f the Institute’s Com- mittee on the Nomenclature o f Alloys, published in 1914 (Journal, Vol. 11, pp. 45-56), recommended that alloys should be denoted by the names of their component metals, placed in the order o f increasing numerical im- portance from the point o f view o f Chemical composition by weight.

In generał, the Institute has en- deavoured to follow this system in its publications, although familiar terms in universal use in English, such as brass, bronze, nickel silver, have naturally been retained where appropriate. The system recom­

mended in 1914 has not, however, been widely accepted, and the con- trary method of placing first the metal present in largest proportion is fairly common in this country and is generał in America and other countries. The Council has there- fore decided, on the recommendation o f its recently constituted Nomen­

clature Committee, that in futurę the practice of the Institute’s publica­

tions shall conform with current usage else where.

The following rule will therefore be adopted forthwith in the Journal and other publications o f the Institute :

When an alloy is named by stating the chief elements it contains before

the word “ alloy,” the elements will be given in the order :

(1) the element present in largest proportion, followTed by

(2) the other elements present.

These will be stated in order o f descending proportion by weight, except in a very few cases where another order is well established. In such cases the customary order will usually be followed.

It will be observed that the Insti­

tute has made this rule for its own guidance, and that the use o f estab­

lished terms and expressions such as brass, bronze, leaded gun-metal, is not in any way affected.

The following examples illustrate the nomenclature to be adopted by the Institute :

96% aluminium, 4% copper— an aluminium—copper alloy.

90% copper, 10% lead— a copper- lead alloy.

94% aluminium, 5% zinc, 1% mag­

nesium— an aluminium-zinc—

magnesium alloy.

88% lead, 12% tin— a lead-tin alloy.

94% magnesium, 5% aluminium, 1% zinc— a magnesium-alumin- ium—zinc alloy.

The new system will be employed in the Institute’s publications from the beginning o f this year.

Membership Additions.

There were elected on December 16 : A s Members.

Ar t h u r, James Thomas, Camborne,

Cornwall.

B^rown, Hiram, B.S., Niagara Falls, N .Y ., U.S.A.

Br u n t o n, Robert Laurence, Hamil­

ton, N.Z.

Cl a r k e, Frederick Cuerel, B.Sc.

(Eng.), London.

Da v i e s, John Leslie, Briton Ferry,

Glam.

Do r f, John, Edgware, Middlesex.

Gr e e n, William Ernest, Wolver-

hampton.

Gr e g o r y, Richard Cecil, London.

Ha r r i s o n, Erie James, Birmingham.

He d g-e c o c k, Percy David, London.

Hu l m e, Dennis Scanlan, B.Sc.,

Grays, Essex.

Le e, Geoffrey Reece Karl, London.

Ma r s h a l l, John Kerrison, Croydon,

Surrey.

x v i ii

News and Announcements

Mi l k o y, Alexander, Gideon, Feltham,

Middlesex.

Mu k e r j e e, Sunil Coomar, London.

Ox b y, George Alfred, B.Met., Sid-

cup, Kent.

Pr e s t o n, Kenneth Huson, London.

Sa i n- Mi l e t i ć, Branko, B.Śc., Barnet, Herbs.

Th o m a s, Joseph Byron, Swansea.

To r r y, Alan, Sheffield.

Wa t s o n, Thomas, Sheffield.

A s Student Members.

B ox , Henry Francis, West Wickham, Kent.

Br a d s h a w, Anthony Vernon, Lon­

don.

Br i g g, John, N. Wembley, Middle-

sex.

Bu s b y, Arthur Donald, Birmingham.

Co c k b i l l, George William, Walsall.

Cr u i c k s h a n k, James Alan Terry,

Glenorchy, Tasmania.

Da v i e s, Harold James, Swansea.

Da v i e s, William Howell, Swansea.

Da v i s, Francis Henry, Barry, Glam.

El l w o o d, Cecil Reginald, Birming­

ham.

Fl o y d, Ronald William, B.Sc., Bir­

mingham.

Fo w l e r, Robert Thomas, Bexley

Heath, Kent.

Gr i f f i t h s, Peter Donald, Swansea.

G^rgic, Slavko, Birmingham.

Ha n c o x, Donald Ernest, Coventry.

Hu g h e s, Thomas Garfield, B.Sc.,

Briton Ferry, Glam.

Ja c k m a n, Hannah Nancy, Berkham-

sted, Herts.

Ja m e s, Kenneth William, Briton

Ferry, Glam.

Jo n e s, Howell Henry Montagu,

B.Sc., Tech., Briton Ferry, Glam.

Le e c h, Edward Arthur, London.

Ma c f a r l a n e, Donald łan, Whyte-

leafe, Surrey.

Ol n e y, Maurice Joseph, Swansea.

Pa r t r i d g e, John Montague, London.

Pe r r y m a n, Erie Charles William, N.

Farnborough.

Po k o r n y, Hans Walter, London.

Re y n o l d s, Norman Montgomery,

Coventry.

Ro w l i n g, Peter James, West Croy-

don, Surrey.

Wa r d, Joan Grimshaw, London.

Wi l l i a m s, Raym ond Campbell, Lon­

don.

A s Associate Member.

Ma r i n oa s, John George, Trenton,

N.J., U.S.A.

L E T T E R T O T H E E D I T O R Alloy Nomenclature.

Si r,

The ąuestion o f alloy nomen­

clature raised by Mr. Freeman Horn appears to us to have a very definite and logical answer. In English usage, the adjective invariably pre- cedes the noun. Thus, one instinct- ively refers to grey cast iron, stainless steel, and corrosion-resisting nickel alloys.

It follows that whatever may be the practice in other languages, when writing English the name o f the alloy - ing element should precede that of the major constituent. It is proper to refer to magnesium-rich alloys o f aluminium and magnesium only as aluminium-magnesium alloys, and to term them— as in Fox and Lardner’s paper— magnesium-aluminium alloys is undoubtedly incorrect and mis- leading. A few exceptions— such as in the widespread reference to 80 : 20 nickel-chromium alloys— must be per- mitted as a concession to illogical custom, but these are so few and well established that they are unlikely to give rise to any serious confusion.

It would seem that by adopting a uniform and clearly stated nomen­

clature in the Journal and Metallurgi­

cal Abstracts, the Publication Com- mittee could give a valuable lead in this matter.

Yours faithfully, A. R. Po w e l l. J . C . Ch a s t o n.

Wembley,

November 30, 1943.

[Mr. Powell and Dr. Chaston sup- port the recommendation o f the In- stitute’s first Nomenclature Com- mittee in its report published in 1914.

The Council’ s new decision is set out on the opposite page, and it may perhaps be worth while emphasizing that the new rule applies only when the word “ alloy ” is present. Our correspondents’ contention that the name o f the minor constituent should precede that o f the major one, is up- held in such terms as ‘ ‘ aluminium brass,” “ phosphor bronze,” “ beryl­

lium copper,” where the word “ al­

loy ” is absent.— Editor!]

News and Announcements

Conference on X-Ray Analysis.

The Third Conference on “ X -R ay Analysis in Industry” has been pro- visionally arranged to take place in Oxford on March 31 and April 1, under the auspices o f the X -R a y Analysis Group o f the Institute o f Physics.

Details will be sent to non-members on application to Dr. H. Lipson, F.Inst.P., Honorary Secretary o f the Group, c/o Crystallographic Laboratory, Free School Lane, Cambridge.

P E R S O N A L N O T E S

Li e u t e n a n t- Ge n e r a l Si r Ro n a l d

Ch a r l e s, the Chief Royal Engineer

and Honorary Treasurer of the In ­ stitute, has just returned from a short tour in India. During his visit he inspected field units o f the Royal Engineers, the three Corps o f Sappers and Miners, and other Groups of Indian Engineers.

General Charles is the Colonel of the Bengal Sappers and Miners, at

whose headąuarters he met two or three retired Viceroy’s commissioned officers and sappers who had served with him when he was a regimental officer. He inspected the training battalions and other depót units on paradę, and visited the messes of the officers, British warrant and non- commissioned officers, and o f the Viceroy’s commissioned officers. He was struck with the military and technical efficiency of all the units whom he visited, as also by the fine spirit which imbued all ranks o f the Indian Engineers.

Marriage.

Dr. E. W. Fe l l, M . Sc., F.R.I.C., to Miss M. F. Taylor, at Friends Meeting House, Malton, on December 7.

Obituary.

Mr. He n r y Ro g e r s, M.B.E., an Original Member o f the Institute, died on December 8, in his 82nd year.

M E E T I N G S O F O T H E R S O C I E T I E S Royal Society of Arts.

Light Alloys in Post-War Britain. By E. C. Goldsworthy. (February 2.

John Adam St., Adelphi, London, W.C.2, at 1.45 p.m.) Midland Metallurgical Societies.

The Utilization of Secondary Copper-Base Materials. By H. J. Miller, M.Sc.

(February 3. James W att Memoriał Institute, Great Charles St., Bir­

mingham, at 6.15 p.m.)

Manchester Metallurgical Society.

Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys in Enemy Aircraft. B y H. Sutton, D.Sc.

(February 9. Engineers’ Club, Albert Sąuare, Manchester, at 6.30 p.m.)

APPGINTM ENTS YACANT.

C o m p a n y established ninety years, handling every grade o f non-ferrous scrap, desires com - petent dealer to re-establish European and Over- seas contacts, with particular reference to com - mon and precious residues. Strictly confidential to B ox N o. 108, Institute o f Metals, 4 G-rosvenor Gardens, London, S .W .l.

M a n a g e r (ąualified metallurgist) reąuired for metallurgical research section o f large organiza- tion in London district, manufacturing aircraft and other scientific instruments. State ąuali- fications, experience, and salary reąuired to B ox N o. 96, Institute o f Metals, 4 Grosyenor Gardens, London, S .W .l.

La b o r a t o r ya s s is t a n t re ą u ire d , m a łe o r fem a le, t o assist in a n a ly tica l c o n t r o l o f m etals a n d ores

connected with manufacture o f arc-welding electrodes. Education at least to Matriculation standard. Salary £150-300 p.a., according to age and ąualiflcations. U nder 20 years o f age preferred, but n ot essential. London area.

Em ploym ent under Essential W orks Order.

B o x N o. 113, Institute o f Metals, 4 Grosyenor Gardens, Lon don, S .W .l.

Re q u i r e d fo r W est London works, metallurgical chemist, preferably with experience in the examination o f electrodeposits and also anodic films on light alloys. Send details o f experience, salary reąuired, and age to B o x N o. 114, Insti­

tute o f Metals, 4 Grosyenor Gardens, London, S .W .l.

XX

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x x i i

PING CAPACITY AT LOW STRESSES IN 956

LIGHT ALLOYS AND CARBON STEEL, WITH SOME EXAMPLES OF NON-DE- STRUCTIVE TESTING.*

By the late Dr.-Ing. LEOPOLD FROMMER,f Member, and A. M URRAY.f

Sy n o p s i s.

This work was undertaken to establish : (1) a reliable and accurate method for measuring the damping capacity o f materials, particularly metals; (2) the significance of the damping capacity as a physical pro- perty of the materiał in tcrms of other known characteristics; (3) the influence exerted by structural defects, such as cracks and porosity, upon the measured damping, and thus to afford means for non-destructive testing; and (4) the practicability o f employing damping measurements as a means o f ąuality control and inspection of raw materiał and finished components.

By careful design, and as the result of experiment, it has been found possible to separate excessive extemal damping losses from the intrinsic damping which it was desired to measure. It has been established that at room temperaturę the damping capacity of the principal aluminium alloys is o f the Order o f 10-5 as expressed by the logarithmic decrement.

The measured damping is a constant up to a maximum shear stress of 30 lb./in.2.

The damping o f aluminium alloys appears to depend upon the degree of precipitation present, being highest for maximum solid solution and lowest in the annealed State.

The damping is markedly increased by smali cracks or such porosity as would not normally occasion the rejection of a cast ingot. In some instances localized defects modify the damping at the various harmonics, so that the position o f the defect can be estimated. This latter feature depends upon the experimentally determined fact that the torsional damping does not vary over the available freąuency rangę.

The damping o f a 0-6 per cent. carbon steel has been studied up to a maximum stress o f 90 lb./in.2 and has been found to be 0-5 X 10-4 for the tempered condition and 0-7 X 10-4 for the oil-ąuenched condition, these values being closely reproduced through suceessive cycles of heat- treatment. Whilst the damping values found by this techniąue are comparable with those obtained by other workers employing a somewhat similar techniąue, they are many times smaller than those found at stresses a few times higher by the Fóppl-Pertz techniąue (J. Iron Steel In s t., 1936, 134, 393).

I . — In t r o d u c t i o n.

Object o f Research.

The aim of this research is the investigation of the usefulness of damp­

ing measurements for metallurgical research and non-destructive testing. Ideally, the damping factor measured should give constant or correlatable values over a reasonably wide rangę of testing con-

* Manuscript received September 28, 1943.

f Research Laboratories, High Huty Alloys, Ltd.

VOL. LXX. B

2

Frommer and M urray :

ditions, enabling reproducible results to be obtained for different specimens of tbe same materiał and of identical metallurgical bistory;

the presence of a defect would then be detected by an anomalous value o f the damping capacity.

The complexities encountered in measurements of the damping capacity in the rangę o f stresses applied in engineering (i.e., up to the fatigue limit) arise because the damping in this stress rangę is governed by elastic-plastic relations which must be expected to vary consider- ably with the prevailing stress and the conditions o f testing (e.g., the number of stress cycles performed). This accounts for the sensitive dependence o f the damping on the amplitudę o f the cyclic stress, and suggests that more direct relations might obtain at very low ampli- tudes, where possibly the damping capacity might tend to assume a constant value which could be described as the “ damping capacity at vanishing amplitudę.” Provided that damping capacity at yanish- ing amplitudę were a constant of the materiał, it would be a significant quantity for the indication of specific features of the structural con­

dition and internal soundness o f the specimen or o f its metallurgical and physical history. However, such a ąuantit/ may be entirely different in meaning from the damping capacity prevailing in the rangę of stresses encountered in normal engineering practice. Some investigators refer to the damping capacity at vanishing amplitudę as

“ internal friction ” or as “ mechanical hysteresis.” It was, however, considered advisable to retain the term “ damping capacity,” or briefly “ damping,” in view o f the experimental phenomenon by which this property is recognized and measured, in preference to other terms which might be understood to imply hypotheses as to the naturę of the dissipative forces. It is therefore to be understood that when- ever the term “ damping capacity ” is used, the damping capacity at vanishing amplitudę is meant unless expressly stated otherwise.

Definilion o f Damping Capacity.

Yarious investigators have defined damping capacity in somewhat different forms which have been reyiewed in yarious publications.

Frequently the damping is defined as : A E e ~~E~’

where AE — energy dissipated per cycle,

and E — max. yibrational energy (i.e., yibrational energy at the beginning o f a cycle),

or E — elastic energy stored at maximum stress (i.e., after J of a cycle).

Damping Capacity at Low Stresses 3

However, in a resonant rod the ąuantity measured is not the yibrational energy but the amplitudę of the oscillation, from which the former ąuantity is then deduced according to generał elastic theory.

It appears preferable, therefore, to define damping capacity in terms of the observed ąuantities, viz., amplitudes, and in this work the logarithmic decrement of the decay o f the yibration amplitudę has been taken as a measure of the damping capacity o f the materiał.

The logarithmic decrement

X = I°g i =/il0gt (1)

where A 0 = initial amplitudę,

A x = amplitudę after one complete oscillation, A n = amplitudę after n complete oscillations,

t = time measured from amplitudę A 0 to amplitudę A n, f — freąuency.

In practice it is usual to calculate X from observations of the time t for the amplitudę A n to fali to a definite fraction of A 0. If this time becomes too short to be measured accurately, X may be determined from a measurement of the breadth of the resonance curve when the specimen is in forced yibration at the resonance freąuency. I f the breadth is taken as the freąuency difference, A/, for which half maximum amplitudes are obtained,

< 2 >

where / is the resonance freąuency.

In the present work the decay times have always been sufficiently long for X to be determined from eąuation (1).

Some investigators, using the analogy of electrical circuits, have expressed the damping capacity by the ąuantity Q, which, in the electrical case, represents the “ sharpness ” of a tuned circuit and eąuals Thus, the ąuantities used by yarious investigators as a measure of the damping capacity can all be expressed in terms of X as :

X - — — — - l o e —

A - 2 E ~ Q ~ V ~ S ’ f ~ f i S A n- Work Done by Previous Investigators.

Various investigators have determined damping capacity at smali amplitudes from the resonance curve of forced yibrations or measure- ments of the logarithmic decrement o f free oscillation of systems con- sisting of, or containing, the specimen under examination.1—8

The results of all these investigations, however divergent in detail, concur in indicating that for very Iow fibrę stresses the damping capacity has a definite value which is of a lower order than that found within the rangę of engineering stresses. Beyond this, the research work published by previous investigators yields little information on the fundamental points which determine whether the “ damping capacity at yanishing amplitudę ” is a well-defined metallurgical property, on the measurement of which new methods o f structural research and of non-destructive testing can be based. The damping values reported for the same materiał by different research workers vary widely, and with regard to some fundamental points the published results appear to be even contradictory. Insufficient metallurgical data are given to enable the causes for these discrepancies to be traced to special features o f the particular specimens examined. It seems probable that in much o f the previous work the ąuoted damping yalues include con- siderable extraneous losses, as will be made evident by our own data.

In view of this, it was decided to attack the problem from funda- mentals, to deyelop a techniąue which could be relied upon to yield measurements representative of the internal damping even in speci­

mens of very Iow damping capacity (where the elimination o f the extraneous losses is of greater importance), and then to investigate the characteristic features of the intrinsic damping capacity of metals and alloys. In particular, it was decided to investigate the correlation of the damping capacity with macro- and micro-structure and with soundness o f the specimen.

II.—Ma t e r i a l s.

After tentative experiments on a yariety of specimens of widely yarying shape and size, and of different materials, it was decided to use comparatively large specimens (similar to those freąuently occur- ring as raw products), chiefły of light alloys and, to a limited extent, of steel.

The principal disadvantage o f using large specimens arises from the increased difficulty o f obtaining a uniform and homogeneous metallurgical condition perfectly free from defects. The advantages of using large alloy specimens are :

(a) The relative extraneous losses (in proportion to the intrinsic dissipation) diminish with increasing size of the specimen. These losses arise mainly from three sources : (1) air losses (by friction and by acoustic radiation); (2) losses by energy transfer to the suspension system; (3) losses caused by the translation instruments used for

4 Frommer and M urray :

Dam ping Capacity at Low Stresses 5

excitation and measurement. The relative air losses would naturally decrease with inereasing ratio of volume to surface, all other factors remaining equal. The losses due to transfer of energy to the sus- pension device and the translation losses become increasingly prominent with decreasing bulk.

(ib) Bulky specimens are less responsive to fortuitous extraneous excitation (such as draught or distant noise), which cannot always be excluded and which, in view of the necessarily sensitive naturę of the suspension system, can be troublesome during measurements on smali samples.

(c) In specimens o f considerable length, the fundamental freąuencies of longitudinal and torsional vibrations are comparatively low, and a number of overtones are measurable (between 500 and 12,000 cycles/second). This is o f particular value in the interpretation of damping in terms o f homogeneity.

(d) Large specimens can be cut up into smaller parts, thus enabling measurements at the same freąuencies to be made on specimens of identical materiał but of widely different sizes.

(e) Such specimens assist in the development o f a method which can be applied immediately to the testing o f actual production samples.

Light alloys manufactured under the supervision of High Duty Alloys Laboratory were used in this work, sińce these materials are produced under carefully controlled conditions at all stages during manufacture. Moreover, large numbers o f standard production specimens were available which could be returned to production after testing, thus economically widening the scope o f the work. The light alloys investigated were, notably :

Hiduminium R.R.56— as extruded and śwaged.

Hiduminium R.R.59— as cast and swaged.

Y alloy— as cast and swaged.

Duralumin— as swaged and extruded.

In addition, some work was done on the magnesium alloy Magnuminium 288.A— as swaged.

Chill-cast ingots o f 3-7 in. diameter and 2 ft. length, and cylindrical bars (wrought, forged, swaged, or extruded), 3-5 in. in diameter and 2-8 ft. in length, made of these alloys, were submitted to investigation in the various relevant stages of heat-treatment. Amongst these were specimens which, during production, had been purposely subjected to varied metallurgical treatments.

6

Frommer and M urray

Investigations were also carried out 011 mild carbon steel bars of 3 in. diameter and 3 ft. length.

It proved necessary to confine the damping measurement to speci­

mens with smooth surfaces, free from casting or forging skin or scalę, preliminary experiments having established the considerable influence of hard crust or scalę on the damping value. Therefore, chill-cast, as well as forged or swaged specimens, were usually turned on the lathe, while extruded bars were generally tested without any machining of the cylindrical surfaces.

For the bulk of the work only cylindrical specimens were used, these being more amenable to mathematical treatment. However, some tapered specimens were measured for the purpose of non-destruc- tive testing.

III.—Me t h o d.

General Conditions.

Existing evidence indicated Iow intrinsic damping -capacities at yanishing amplitudes; this fact governed the selection of the method of measurement. Previous investigators, notably Zener and Forster and Koster, had reported values as Iow as KH, and tentative experi- ments at High Duty Alloys had confirmed this order of magnitude.

Since experimental errors in generał increase the damping value measured, it was to be expected that the actual intrinsic damping capacity of some metals might be of a still lower order.

Thus, the elimination of extraneous sources of dissipation was a pre-requisite necessitating a method of supporting the specimen such that the sum total o f all frictional and other external losses should be o f an order considerably lower than 0-001 per cent. of the elastic yibra- tional energy o f the specimen. Any direct contact between the speci­

men and other solids which could lead to noticeable transfer of energy had to be ayoided; conseąuently, all methods involving clamping or fastening the specimen to a rigid frame were considered unsuitable.

Likewise methods which necessitate the clamping of the specimen to any other solid body taking part in the yibrational movement (as in the case o f a resonant pendulum) appeared unsuitable, sińce the fric­

tional losses in the joint cou,ld not be controlled as long as the intrinsic damping capacity o f the specimen itself was unknown. The most promising method appeared to be that of the “ resonant bar.”

Principle o f the “ Resonant Bar.”

This method consists in exciting in a freely suspended bar (“ free- free ” ) a strictly monochromatic oscillation, and determining the