Industrial and Engineering Chemistry : industrial edition, Vol. 37, No. 9

Industrial and

Engineering Chemistry

Volume 37 • Number 9 SEPTEMBER, 1945

REPRINT EDITION

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EDITOR: WALTER J . MURPHY Assistant to Editor: N . A . PA R K IN S O N

M a n a g in g Editor: F. J. VAN ANTWERPEN A ssociate Editor: JAMES M. CROWE M idw est Editor: ROBERT F. GOULD Industrial Editor: HARRY W . STENERSON M anuscript Editor: HELEN K. NEWTON M ake-up Editor: BERTHA REYNOLDS M anuscript Assistant: STELLA ANDERSON

Contributing Editors C h a r l e s O w e n B r o w n R a l p h H . M u n c h H a r o l d R. M u r d o c k W a l t e r v o n P e c h m a n n

Advisory Board

W . L BADGER H . R. M URDOCK

H . E. BARNARD C . F. PRUTTO N

W . H . D O W A . S. RICH AR DSO N G A S T O N DUBOIS W . A . SC HM ID T G U STA V U S J . ESSELEN R. N . SHREVE

PER K. FRÖLICH L. V . STECK

C F. KETTERING C . M . A . STINE

O . E. M A Y E. C . SU LLIVAN

C . S. MINER E. R. WEIDLEIN

J . M . WEISS

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sponsibility for the statements and opin io n s a d ­ vanced by contributors to its publications.

Copyright 1 9 4 5 by American Chem ical S o c ie ty 3 2 ,2 0 0 copies o f this issue prin ted

ISSUED SEPTEMBER 13, 1945 • VOL. 37, NO. 9 • CONSECUTIVE NO. 17 DEPARTMENTS

E ditorial!...79 3 H e a d l i n e s ...9 0 9

I. & E. C. R e p o r t s ... *5

A s W e S ee It . . . ...*79

Equipment and Design. Charles O w e n B r o w n ... *85

Instrumentation. Ralph H. M u n c h ... *91

Waste Utilization. H arold R. M u r d o c k ... *97

Plant Management. W alter von P e c h m a n n ... *103

Last-Minute F l a s h e s ...*150

TECHNICAL ARTICLES Alumina from Low-Grade Bauxite. Robert F. G o uld ...7 9 6 Cryptostegia Leaf Rubber. S. R. H oover, T. J. Dietz, J . Naghski, and J . W . W hite, Jr. 80 3 Drying O ils from Sorbitol and Linseed Fatty A c id s ... J. D. Brandner, R. H . Hunter, M. D. Brewster, and R. E. Bonner 8 0 9 Small-Scale Generation of Chlorine D ioxide. W. S. Hutchinson and R. i Derby . 813 Partial Combustion of Gas with a Deficiency of A i r ... F. E. V andaveer and C . G e o rg e Segeler 8 1 6 Vapor-Liquid Equilibria in Mixtures of Volatile Paraffins... G e o rg e H. Hanson and G e o rg e G ranger Brown 821 Thermodynamic Properties of Methane at Low Temperature... W. H. Corcoran, R. R. Bowles, B. H . Sage, and W . N. Lacey 825 Manufacture of Concentrated S u p e r p h o s p h a te ... G. L. Bridger, R. B. Burt, and W . W . Cerf 8 2 9 Corrosion Prevention by Controlled Calcium Carbonate S c a l e ... Sheppard T. Powell, H . E. Bacon, and J. R. Li 11 842 Phase Behavior of Binary Carbon Dioxide-Paraffin S y s t e m s ... Fred H. Poettmann and D. L. Katz 847 Batch Steam Distillation Nomograph. Melvin N o r d ... 8 5 4 Alkali Resistance of the Iron Blues. Harris H o l t z m a n ... 855

Peanut Protein Hydrates. R. S. B u r n e t t ...861 Recovery of 2,3-Butylene G lycol from Fermentation L i q u o r s ...

R. H. Blom, D. L. Reed, A aron Efron, and G . C. Mustakas 865 Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium in Mixtures of 2,3-Butylene G lycol and Water . . . .

R. H . Blom, G . C. Mustakas, A aron Efron, and D. L. Reed 87 0 Continuous Process for Acetylation of 2.3-Butylene G lycol ...

L. E. Schniepp, J. W. Dunning, and E. C. Lathrop 87 2 Conversion of 2,3-Butylene G lycol to 1 ,3-Butadiene by Pyrolysis of Diacetate

S. A . M oreli, H. H. G eller, and E. C. Lathrop 877

Pilot-Plant Conversion of 2,3-Butylene G lycol Diacetate to 1 ,3-Butadiene . . . L. E. Schniepp, J. W . Dunning, H. H. G eller, S. A . M oreli, and E. C. Lathrop 88 4 Liquid-Liquid Extraction D a t a ...

Donald F. Othmer, William S. Bergen, Nathan Shlechter, and Paul F. Bruins 8 9 0 Composition of Vapors from Boiling Binary S o l u t i o n s ...

Donald F. Othmer, Nathan Shlechter, and W alter A . Koszałka 895 Esterification of 2,3-Butylene G lycol with A c e tic A c i d ...

Nathan Shlechter, Donald F. Othmer, and Seymour Marshak 9 0 0 Pyrolysis of 2,3-Butylene G lycol Diacetate to B u ta d ien e...

Nathan Shlechter, Donald F. Othmer, and Robert Brand 905

* Indicates pas* nutnbw In She advertising section.

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The Ford wood distillation plant at Iron Mountain, Mich.

INDUSTRIAL ^{a n d} ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

THE CHEMICAL WORLD TOI

A tom ic A ge. C ivilization reached its m a jo rity la st m onth.

N o longer can our w orld be irresponsible, m ischievously play w ith security an d lives, and then, after th e dam age is to taled , charge i t to m oral im m atu rity . D isintegration of atom s changed all th a t, an d th e w orld’s tw enty-first b irth ­ d ay cam e generations earlier th a n expected. T h e price th a t will be paid for w ar in th e fu tu re will m ake th e holocaust ju s t experienced seem a m ere p aren tal slap as com pared to execution in th e electric chair. A dam ’s

children, answ ering C ain’s question, are indeed th e ir b ro th ers’ keepers, forever from this d ay forw ard.

F o r a w hile it will seem strange in th e technical field n o t to have censorship.

For so long we have furtively glanced be­

hind a t th e m ention of C linton engineer, O ak Ridge, atom ic power, and uranium th a t som e tim e will be required to ad ju st

our lives to th e change. W e had, along w ith practically every one else in th e scientific and journalistic fields, suspected th a t th e huge m ysterious projects in th e S outh and in th e sta te of W ashington were concerned w ith atom ic pow er; b u t, being on th e outside looking in, so to speak, a t th e field of nuclear physics, we h ad very little to go on other th a n pure specula­

tion.

T he evidence th a t th e N atio n was doing som ething a b o u t th e su b ject cam e slowly b u t surely. W hen we first suspected it, we did w h at an y ed ito r would do— w ent to th e literatu re an d m easured th e inches of published references on th e sub­

je ct, prew ar an d a t th e tim e. T he results m ade us certain th a t som e so rt of a censorship was being exercised, for th e ref­

erences suddenly stopped. T h e num ber and th e caliber of th e m en transferring to th e cities around th e projects gave us an o th er inkling. N a tu ra lly th ere was gossip, gossip, and gossip, b u t never a direct leak. T he secret was well kep t, b u t th e very m agnitude of th e project m ade com plete veiling of activ ities im possible. One of th e real indications was th e la te r censorship code, which specifically enum erated th e sub­

jects in th is field th a t could n o t be m entioned in p rin t. T hen th is year, w hile we were in E ngland, we read th e London Ex-press of M ay 21, which blazoned on th e fro n t page th e stories of th e atom ic bom b race betw een th e Allies and th e

A new columnist has b een added to our staff o f Contributing Editors. Harold R.

Murdock will write a column on the im­

portant subject o f waste utilization. It will b e found each month in the advertis­

ing section (te e page 9 7 ) following "In­

strumentation" (M unch) and preceding

"Plant Management" (von Pechmann).

N azis and of th e B ritish expedition to N orw ay to w reck th e heavy-w ater p la n ts a t R ju k an . T h e laboratories a t this N orwegian tow n were b ro u g h t un d er th e com m and of th e G erm ans in 1940, b u t n o t u n til Lief T ro n stad , N orw egian chem ist, h ad burned all th e records an d fled to E ngland, where th e w ork of m aking an atom ic bom b was begun. In D ecem ber, 1942, th e B ritish landed, b y glider, an expedition of tw enty-five m en who were assigned to sabotage th e p la n t.

Plans w ent wrong, how ever, an d th e m en were w iped o u t. A la te r expedition, in F eb ru ary , 1943, succeeded in blowing up th e la b o rato ry and g ettin g aw ay. The p la n t was bom bed la te r th a t y ear b u t was recom m issioned. B y A pril, 1944,

1 2 to n s of heavy w ater were read y for tra n sp o rta tio n to th e G erm an labora­

tories, an d w ere to be ta k e n b y ferry across Lake Tinsjoe. P a trio ts san k the ferry an d its load of heav y w ater b y a tta c h in g a m agnetic m ine to th e hull. Such leads m ade th e E d ito rs certain th a t th e huge p la n ts h ad to do w ith atom ic pow er, an d y et, when th e news broke, i t was in such a w ay th a t all were ta k e n by surprise. T echnically th e re is little to discuss except w h at we have ab stracted from th e re p o rt issued b y th e W ar D ep art­

m ent. One question th a t continuously rose to plague us was w hat th e reaction of th e press w ould be to th is la te s t im agina­

tion stretch er of science. Science is u sually b lam ed for arous­

ing in m a n ’s b reast th e desire to use th e new est p lay th in g of th e laboratory. W hen th e end of a w ar comes in a shorter tim e th a n if m en w ere still using clubs, science is blam ed for a violation of hum an ethics w hich, for som e m ysterious reason, is k e p t alive through every w ar. W hen science steps in and ends th e fight, h u m an ethics collapse.

T he New Yorker saw in th e bom b th e end of th e q u est for a su b stitu te for G od, an d th e u rg e n t need for a universal political stru ctu re. One phrase especially stick s: “ N uclear energy an d foreign policy cannot coexist o n th e p la n e t.”

We should like to see th a t spread on billboards across th e country. T he N ew Republic expressed th e hope o n ly th a t th e first resu lt w ould be th e end of th e Jap an ese w ar. T h e New York Tim es devoted alm ost th ree (Continued on page 8)

/Jn i *tte*p*etcUiue m onthly d iq e it fa * c h e m iitl, chem ical ettqine&iA., cutd eM eoutiuei in the chem ical pAoducintp and, chem ical ca*uUuHi*uj.

I. & E. C.

Reports on the <7 / / Chemical W orld

Today

I. & E. C.

Report on the Chemical World

Today

île

editorial columns to the bomb and its effect; th e y urged the extension of dem ocracy around th e world, w ith th e belief th a t no people will w ant w ar, knowing w hat th e consequences of th e atom ic bom b will be. M ost of th e com m ent we read was along th e la tte r line, except those voicing th e opinion th a t we should dum p th e bom b and, presum ably, those who had invented it, into th e nearest ocean. T he m oralists and phil­

osophers now had more to lecture science ab o u t th a n they h ad when D arw in’s theory of evolution broke upon them , and they were m aking th e m ost of it.

M ore energy was expended in rushing to p rin t w ith ex­

planations of how th e bomb works, w hy it was used, and why it should not be used, th a n was released in th e tw o explosions over Japan. One thing we hope for—th a t it does n o t stop.

W e hope th a t m an will n o t become blasé over th e bom b, th a t he will continue to m arvel and be frightened. Since the w orld a t large still thinks th a t the opinion of a movie star or a political boss has more w eight th a n th e advice of a scientist, the only hope for m an is th a t scientists keep pulling wonders out of h ats to keep th e hum an race thoroughly frightened, duly impressed, and busy explaining atom s, pro­

tons, and fissures to one another. Perhaps in th a t w ay m an­

kind will be too frightened a n d /o r enlightened to s ta rt a third W orld W ar.

Te c h n i c a l De t a i l s. Prim er for all th e present explana­

tions in th e press about th e new weapon is a report of some 180 pages entitled “G eneral A ccount of th e D evelopm ent of M ethods of Using Atomic E nergy for M ilitary Purposes under th e Auspices of th e U nited S tates G overnm ent, 1940- 1945” , w ritten b y H . D . Sm yth, chairm an of th e D ep art­

m ent of Physics of Princeton U niversity, and consultant to th e M an h attan Project. This report was released by the W ar D epartm ent to inform “a substantial group of engi­

neers and scientific men who (can) understand such things and who can explain th e potentialities of atom ic bombs to th e ir fellow citizens.” M ost of th e following is taken from th e Sm yth report and represents w hat we th in k will be of m ost interest to our readers.

I t all began when G . B. Pegram of Colum bia U niversity telephoned th e N avy D epartm ent in M arch, 1939, for an appointm ent for Enrico Ferm i, Italian nuclear physicist who w as im bued w ith th e idea of harnessing th e power of th e atom . B y th e fall of th a t year m a tters had progressed u n til P resident Roosevelt appointed an Advisory Com m ittee on U ranium . S m yth com m ents in his chapter on this phase th a t “ a t th a t tim e (January, 1939) A m erican-bom nuclear physicists were so unaccustom ed to th e idea of using their science for m ilitary purposes th a t they hardly realized w hat needed to be done.

Consequently, th e early efforts, b o th a t restricting publication and a t getting governm ent support, were stim ulated by a sm all group of foreign-born physicists centering on L. Szilard, and including E . W igner, E . Teller, V. F . W eisskopf, and E.

Ferm i.” T h a t sam e spring th e physicists imposed a volun­

ta ry censorship on th e results of their a tte m p ts to split u ra­

nium . T his was m any m onths before H itler’s hordes marched

on Poland. (Continued on -page 10)

8

T he first governm ent appropriation, 6000 dollars, was transferred from th e A rm y and N avy on F eb ru ary 20, 1940.

The following Ju n e saw th e form ation of N ational Defense Research Com m ittee, and P resident Roosevelt ordered the U ranium Com m ittee reconstituted under N D R C . T he first contract by N D R C for this w ork was le t to ru n a year from N ovem ber ¹, 1940, and 40,000 dollars were appropriated.

By th e end of this period, sixteen contracts had been let and 300,000 dollars appropriated. In October, 1940, Presi­

den t Roosevelt w rote to Prim e M inister Churchill and ar­

ranged for active cooperation between th e B ritish and Ameri­

cans. On N ovem ber 28, 1941, V annevar Bush, head of the Office of Scientific Research and D evelopm ent which in­

cluded N D R C , had th e work transferred to OSRD so th a t an all-out effort could be m ade to solve th e problem . I t re­

m ained an OSRD problem u n til th e A rm y formed th e M an­

h a tta n P roject on A ugust 13, 1942. All w ork on th e project thereafter was labeled “ D SM ” (developm ent of su b stitu te m aterials). Over th e project was a m ilitary policy com m it­

tee consisting of V annevar Bush, chairm an, Jam es B. Con- ant, alternate, M ajor G eneral W . D . Styer, and R ear Ad­

m iral W . R . Purnell. These m en k e p t th e President in­

formed as to th e progress made. Brigadier G eneral L. R.

G roves was placed in com plete charge of A rm y activities.

Im m ediately a fter President T rum an’s inauguration, Secre­

ta ry Stim son and G eneral G roves gave th e new president up-to-the-m inute inform ation ab o u t th e project, so im­

po rtan t had th e w ork become a t th a t tim e.

Pr o j e c t De v e l o p m e n t. O nly a brief sum m ary of the processes by which atom ic fission is accom plished will be presented here, as explained by Sm yth.

Before censorship was imposed, i t was know n th a t one of the isotopes of uranium having an atom ic m ass of 235 dis­

integrated violently when h it by a neutron. This isotope is present in n atu ral uranium m aterials in th e ratio of ¹ p a rt in 140. New knowledge added b y th e Sm yth report is th a t when ordinary uranium (atom ic num ber 92, atom ic mass 238) is h it b y a neutron, i t changes into another isotope, n atu rally of th e sam e atom ic num ber; b u t because the n eutron has ab o u t th e sam e m ass as th e protons th a t m ake up m ost of th e w eight of th e nucleus, th e m ass becomes greater by ab o u t 1. Therefore th e isotope becomes uranium 239.

This is unstable and gives off a beta ray, a negative particle presum ably coming from th e nucleus, and a new elem ent neptunium is form ed. N eptunium has th e sam e mass as the predecessor isotope of uranium 239, b u t has a different posi­

tive charge in th e nucleus (a plus charge of one proton) so th a t th e new elem ent is num ber 93. T he sam e thing happens again—neptunium gives off a b eta ray, th e mass still is the same, b u t again an increase in positive charge due to the loss of a negative particle gives elem ent num ber 94, or pluton­

ium . Plutonium can, over a long period of tim e, give off a neutron to form uranium 235, b u t in th e n atu ral course of events th is happens too slowly to be explosive.

P lutonium is also susceptible if h it b y a neutron, and on the basis of early experim ents, th e (Continued on page 14)

10

cir£,rwXd

Today

decision was m ade to investigate th e explosive possibilities of th is new elem ent. One other concept is necessary, an d th a t is a n understan d in g of th e “ pile” . T o change ordinary uranium in to th e plutonium th a t is w anted, uranium m u st be h it w ith a “slow” or “ th e rm al” neutron. A pparently U-235 m u st also be h it w ith th e sam e ty p e of neutron to explode.

T he fast neu tro n either bounces off th e nucleus or is adsorbed in to th e nucleus for a nonfission-type strike. T herefore it be­

cam e necessary to find some way to m ake th e neutrons slow u p ; th is was done b y passing them through heavy w ater or through an o th er m oderator, graphite. If a pile of graphite a n d uranium of th e correct shape and size were bu ilt, it was conceivable th a t a chain reaction m ight be set up. T he neu­

tro n s generated in th e fission of U-235 or plutonium would slow u p enough to explode other atom s of these elem ents, and a p oint could be reached where th e num ber of explosions and fission captures of th e neutrons produced continued to increase. B y correctly shaping th e pile, th e num ber of neu­

tro n s escaping to th e atm osphere were m inim ized and cap­

tu red in th e uranium . Sm yth is purposely vague as to th e source of th e neutrons, b u t a t th e U niversity of Chicago th e first sustaining pile was b u ilt using graphite as a m oderator.

In th e first experim ents on m easuring th e effect of graphite on neutrons (work done a t Colum bia U niversity) th e neutron source was radium -beryllium .

Two m ethods of a tta c k presented them selves: (1) to sepa­

ra te U-235 from th e ordinary uranium , (²) to build a pile and m ake th e new elem ent plutonium . Since th e new elem ent was a d istin ct m aterial, perhaps it could be separated by chem ical m eans. T he source of uranium becam e a problem , and th e M allinckrodt Chem ical W orks, w ith experim ents car­

ried o u t a t th e N ational B ureau of Standards by J . I. Hoffm an as a basis, solved th e problem b y th e ether extraction of huge q u an tities of oxide. D eliveries sta rte d July, 1942, a t a rate of 40 tons per m onth. F o r a tim e th e m etal was m ade by electrolysis of K U F 6, b u t this was la te r changed to uranium tetrafluoride; th e la tte r sa lt was produced by H arshaw Chem ical C om pany and E . I. du P o n t de N em ours & Com­

pany, Inc. S m yth becomes vague again, and m erely men­

tions th a t a new process for m aking th e m etal was developed by F . H . Spedding and associates a t Iow a S tate College and b y C. J. R odden a t th e B ureau of S tandards. T his a pparently was th e process m ainly used.

G rap h ite procurem ent and p u rity also proved to be a stum bling block. N . H ilberry, th e N ational C arbon Com­

pany, and th e Speer C arbon C om pany ultim ately provided th e answ ers w ith a graphite th a t had ^{2 0}% less neutron ad­

sorption th a n th e im pure m aterial used a t th e beginning of th e experim ents. T he tw o m ain problem s of supply were solved, b u t th ere were a h o st of others, and chemi jts, physi­

cists, and m etallurgists worked hard and long a t th e problems.

T he size of pile to be constructed, ty p e of coolant for th e pile (w ater or helium ), m ethod of protecting uranium from corro­

sion, m eans of protecting workers and citizens from harm ful radiations, m eans of recharging th e uranium m etal, solution of th e chem istry problem s of plutonium and working o u t m ethods for its separation from a (Continued on page 18)

14

I. & E. t .

Reports on the <*

Chemical W orld J e c tu ia U H ff Today

sam ple of 500 m icrogram s, m ethods of sep aratin g isotopes—

these are only sam ples of th e m yriad of difficulties th a t had to be overcome.

As fa r as can be gleaned from th e rep o rt, th e m ethod of separating plutonium was chem ical. T he u ran iu m m etal was p u t u p in rods; when th e pile h ad ru n for a certain length of tim e, i t was stopped and th e rods of uran iu m were pushed o u t an d carried u n d er w ater (all b y rem ote control) to the beginning of th e separation process. O nly a few gram s of plutonium w ere obtained from huge q u an tities of m etal.

A pparently th e m etal n o t changed to th e new elem ent was redissolved an d m ade in to m etal again. W e em phasize th a t th e m etal bom barded was com mon u ran iu m 238. The separation processes m ade use of an a lte rn a tio n betw een the 4 an d ⁶ oxidation s ta te s of plutonium . Such processes involve p recip itatio n of plu to n iu m 4 w ith a certain com­

pound as carrier, dissolution of th e p recip itate, oxidation of p lutonium to th e ⁶ sta te , an d rep recip itatio n of th e carrier com pound while th e plutonium rem ains in solution. The p la n t a t H anford, W ash., w as exclusively devoted to plu­

tonium , b u t a t th e C linton, T en n ., p la n t n o t only were m ethods explored for m aking th is new elem ent, b u t U-235 cam e in for m uch probing.

As finally w orked o u t, th e m ethods of sep aratin g this rare isotope were based on th e diffusion of a gas th ro u g h a barrier, and th e enriched gas was used in a calutron, an electrom ag­

netic sep arato r of isotopes developed a t U niversity of Cali­

fornia. T his was one of th e la te r developm ents w hich pro­

duced suitable m a terial for th e atom ic bom b. T h e principle of th e calutron is th e sam e as th a t of th e m ass spectrograph.

An ion source provides a beam of u ranium ions, an accelerator speeds them to high velocities, an d a m agnetic field forces them to trav el in a sem icircle, th e lig h ter ions having the shorter periphery an d entering a receiver.

T he H anford p la n t was ru n b y D u P o n t, th e calu tro n unit b y Tennessee E astm an , an d th e gaseous diffusion p la n t by C arbide an d C arbon. T h a t th ree chem ical com panies oper­

ated th e th ree p la n ts which h ad such a fateful effect on the course of h isto ry is a record to be p roud of. Space prevents m ore from being told, b u t from tim e to tim e we hope to present fu rth e r d a ta on th is subject.

Bom bers an d Biologists. T he dram atic role of the atom ic bom b in speeding th e end of th e w ar in th e Pacific tends to overshadow th e p a rt played b y th e splendid planes th a t carried th e A-bombs, th e high-octane fuel th a t drove them , an d th e fine h u m an m achines th a t piloted th em to th e ir goals. C hem ists an d engineers are m ore th a n fam iliar w ith th e search and research th a t h as k e p t a riv er of high- te s t gasoline flowing in to aircraft, an d of th e m etallurgy and aerodynam ics th a t h ave increased th e speed an d efficiency of A m erican planes each m o n th of th e w ar. Some, perhaps, m ay have lost sight of th e superhum an dem ands m ade on th e h um an organism to a d a p t itself to flight in oxygen-defi­

cient atm ospheres and a t faster-than-sound speeds a t which N atu re never intended i t to function. Problem s th a t con­

fronted biologists who were called in to assist medical officers

of th e A rm y (Continued on page 22)

18

s s & a s a *»<«»*«.

Today

and N av y air forces were discussed recently by D . W. B ronk

^ a t th e M arine Biological L aboratory, W oods Hole, M ass.,

where research in biology, biochem istry, and related fields is carried on during th e sum m er by investigators from all

^ over th e country. D r. B ronk, director of th e Eldridge R.

1'ei5 Johnson F oundation for M edical Physics (p a rt of th e Uni-

^ versity of P ennsylvania M edical School), is C oordinator of

R esearch in th e Air Surgeon’s Office, A.A.F. H is lecture illustrated th e efficient way biologists, physiologists, and biochem ists have utilized fundam ental research to solve w artim e problem s. T he No. 1 physiological difficulty th e a ir surgeon had to com bat was th e effect of rare atm ospheres on m an. Basic work done in th e biological laboratory on th e effect of oxygen deficiency on nerve cells was utilized k H*S in tests to determ ine, am ong other things, how long m an can ess® tolerate th e decreased oxygen tension a t various altitudes.

“K®; Connected w ith this m ain problem of adequate oxygen

¡its® supply were others: How far does breathing pure oxygen

r.32 j raise th e altitu d e “ ceiling” which mem bers of a crew can

KK;; ■_ stand? Oxygen m asks m ust fit m any types of heads, and

; 3 1? anthropologists were finally able to simplify them into four l m i basic designs. If one m em ber of a crew is injured and an­

other has to move about to help him , how long can th e a a : la tte r be separated from his oxygen supply w ithout feeling

£ ¡ 2 2 bad effects or losing consciousness? W here th e bom ber is

•¿yr, equipped w ith a pressurized cabin, how large a hole can be

vrr endured from flak or bullets before th e pum ping system fails

5-_; to supply enough oxygen to balance th a t lost through the

gap? W h at effect does a sudden loss of pressure in a pres- surized cabin have on th e hum an organism , and how severe

. are th e results of rapid changes of pressure, which m ay finally

i, bring ab o u t “ bends” ?

i . _ T he opposing forces of gravity and centrifugal force a t

extrem ely high speeds also p u t a trem endous strain on the hum an organism th a t it was never intended to bear. W hen a pilot dives on a ta rg e t a t a ra te of 500 or 600 miles per hour, and then suddenly ascends, the blood tends to leave the brain, stom ach, and upper p a rt of th e body and rush into th e feet and legs. The result m ay be loss of vision or even of consciousness. An ingenious G -suit (G for gravity) has been developed which utilizes pressure on th e legs and lower parts of th e body to counterbalance this rush of blood. D r. Bronk

vii i : learned from G erm an air surgeons th a t this suit impressed

i tii Pss them greatly, since they had nothing like it. On th e other

¡¡/¡Up hand, th e G erm ans were ahead of us in perfecting a seat

¡jut '0 which utilizes an autom atic explosive propellant to force

^ (jar th e pilot upw ard and outw ard from th e plane in case it is

¡¡¡¡¡¿I dam aged a t a very high altitude, flying a t high speed. In gofjif such a case th e pilot, unaided, would be unable to overcome

¡jufgyii g ravity and centrifugal force quickly enough to get o u t of the

ggjjci plane and open his parachute.

pijjaf An im p o rtan t p a rt of th e aviation physiologists’ ta sk has jjjgje a been to in stru c t th e flyers them selves in th e various ways of protecting their bodies against injury due to th e unnatural

^ 0 conditions under which th e y m u st operate. A general in the

0 G erm an medical service told D r. B ronk th a t th e physiological

ggctr: knowledge possessed and utilized by our captured flyers had

^ t m astounded th e enem y air surgeons.

22

Alumina and the Red M ud. Conservation of bauxite may seem already foreign to our thinking, now th a t peace is with us once again, but during the dark days of the suDmarine menace we were really “strapped” for suitable supplies to use in the conventional process for the forerunner of aluminum. The chemists and chemical engineers of the Aluminum Company of America developed a method of making alumina from low-grade ores, the trick being to win the alumina carried away by the

■silica in the waste red mud. Present in the less concentrated ores are greater quantities of silica, b u t a successful process for treating the red m ud was found. One of the main difficulties was finding a method for eliminating sulfur introduced into the process. This step was performed by crystallizing evaporators, shown in the flow sheet in the article “Alumina from Low- Grade Bauxite,” by our Midwest Editor, Robert F. Gould, with the cooperation of th e ALCOA technical staff. This article describes another of the new techniques worked out for the war effort, which I.&E.C. will continue to bring to its readers.

Corrosion Sequsl. August featured a symposium on corrosion inhibitors; this m onth we are presenting a paper by Powell, Bacon, and Lill, consulting engineers of Baltimore, who specialize in corrosion and allied problems. The authors prepared this manuscript a t the request of the Editor after the symposium had been given a t the N orth Jersey meeting of the A.C.S. last year. The experience they bring to the field is such th a t all will benefit from their freely given knowledge. W ar plants, built when copper and brass were scarce, were able to operate without resistant materials because of the methods described here for protecting steel equipment by the deliberate building of a calcium carbonate scale. An excellent history of success has been attached to this process bu t also a number of failures, which are analyzed by the authors.

C. Madagascariensis and the Emergency. Back when our natural rubber was cut off (remember?) and we were arguing about synthetic vs. the domestic natural product, one of the sources th a t came in for a great deal of investigation and pub­

licity was cryptostegia, a vine bearing a beautiful flower and secreting latex from both stems and leaves. The stem latex has been sold in the past as a rubber source, and now the D epart­

ment of Agriculture reports on methods of obtaining the latex present in the leaves. There are problems galore attending such an interesting investigation, from the beginning when the cell of the plant containing the rubber is destroyed by fermentation through the solvent extraction and vulcanization of the rubber obtained. See “Cryptostegia Leaf Rubber” .

From the Bleacher«. Chlorine dioxide is proving itself as quite an agent for th e bleaching of many materials, flour being one of the first tried. I t is not, then, surprising th a t a research team of General Mills should publish on research techniques using this gas. Hutchinson and Derby have worked with this bleacher for some time, and give to us the benefit of their experience in making small quantities of C10² for investigational purposes.

Depending on w hat you want, three methods are offered for use.

Bluer and Bluer. Iron blues have long been a staple in the pigm ent field, b u t they have an annoying quality of turning

brown under the influence of alkalies. Recent progress in the field ndicates th at, modified w ith the m etal nickel, improved resistance to alkalies is obtained. Holtzman, of Ansbacher- Siegle Corporation, explores this territory thoroughly and ad­

vances a theory as to why nickel helps overcome the fault of the iron blues in becoming colorless.

Controlled Combustion. Control of gas combustion is now a fairly common industrial procedure where special atmospheres are needed to accomplish some chemical change in the material being heat-treated. Vandaveer and Segeler, of the American Gas Association, report on their investigations to determine the products formed when a gas is partially burned in a deficiency of air. These d ata will aid in preventing unw anted side reactions in “heat tre a t” , and will m aterially extend our knowledge about the mysteries o f combustion.

More Phos in Superph s. TVA has been making superphos­

phate for many years, and we now publish the latest study on making superphos more super. This tim e the effect of mixing and curing on the conversion of rock phosphate to superphosphate is elaborated on in great detail. Bridger, B urt, and Cerf also indicate th a t there are im portant differences in the results ob­

tained in the official A.O.A.C. method of analyzing for P²O⁵ and another analytical method.

Peanut Glues. B urnett, of the Southern Regional Research Laboratory, hopes th a t glues and adhesives will soon be made from peanuts. The trick is to isolate the protein from th e meal w ithout altering the composition too much by heat or alkali.

On top of th a t advice, he proceeds to disect the peanut by chemi­

cal means and tells how to accomplish the desired end.

8,3-B.G . Nine papers, five from the N orthern Regional Re­

search Laboratory and four from th e Polytechnic In stitu te of Brooklyn, .report on the use of 2,3-butylene glycol as an inter­

mediary in the production of butadiene. This work, carried on during the height of the rubber crisis, was of extreme importance, although the critical aspect is past. However, much of a vital nature is contained in the techniques explained in these manu­

scripts, and they now become p a rt of the record. F uture work m ay uncover m any possibilities in this method for th e chemical industry.

With the Departments. A new column is introduced in this issue; Harold R. Murdock will comment on waste utilization, and readers will find much of interest there every m onth. Brown writes about those little appreciated b u t very vital leak stoppers—- gaskets. Von Pechmann explores tim e study for the chemical industry; strangely enough, up-to-the-minute utilization of a time-study m an’s ability does not stop a t incentive rates, and von Pechmann points out more im portant uses for this knowl­

edge. Munch shows how data from instrum ental analyses can be quickly correlated by electrical computers.

'f ' ‘ ' i •

INDUSTRIAL ^{a n d} e n g i n e e r i n g c h e m is t r y

I B M S H E D BY T H E A M E R I C A N C H E M I C A L S O C I E T Y

• W A L T E R J. M U R P H Y , E D I T O R .

Peace and a New W orld

T

soning which followed th e indescribable destruction of tw o Japanese cities by atom ic bom bs far transcend th e physical havoc w rought by th e initial application of atom ic energy. N ever in th e long m arch of history down through the ages has m an witnessed and experienced such a bewildering succession of events as those which occurred between A ugust 5 and A ugust 14 and culm inated in th e to ta l surrender of Ja p a n . One breath-taking climax followed another w ith such rapid­

ity th a t m an’s capacity to com prehend and evaluate was subjected to trem endous stresses and strains.

O ur N ation, benign and generous in days of friendship, proved once again th a t it grasps th e sword only to defend th e rights of all m ankind. T he sam e nation, to which we ex­

tended aid and succor when stru ck b y a devastating earth ­ quake, was m ade to feel th e righteous anger and m ight of an aroused people.

B u t in fighting and winning th e m ost terrible and horrible of all wars, we did n o t forget our single objective. To our enemies who would have destroyed and enslaved us if they had prevailed, we now offer help and giiidance. W e seek n o t vengeance. Our prim er of dem ocracy and freedom is theirs if their peoples will b u t indicate a sincere and honest interest.

Should th e sam e destructive forces of N atu re again be tu rn ed upon them , our w rath would become charity, th e injured cared for, and th e homeless provided w ith shelter. America w ants peace, it needs peace, b u t a sick and troubled world now half destroyed needs peace even more and th e whole trem bling system needs dem ocracy and America.

T oday we are in th e long-dreamed-of brave new world. T he postw ar now is a reality, i t is here, and our dream s, ideas, expectations, and desires can and should be satisfied. B u t it is “ we th e people” who m ust cu t th e p a tte rn . R ealization of th e goals we seek depends upon expending great effort;

otherwise th e new world will never come to fruition. The battle-w eary veteran m ay soon be safely home, th e hand of M ars stayed once more, b u t, unless we courageously wage th e peace as we did th e war, th e m ute mounds of earth , th e final resting places of th e m ortal rem ains of our im m ortal dead, will be b u t a grim rem inder th a t once more th e living have failed in th eir appointed ta sk and th a t millions again have b u t died in vain.

Peace m u st be nourished w ith zeal; it m u st be protected;

i t m u st be recognized as one of th e m ost precious blessings we possess; and to continue to possess it we m u st whole­

heartedly dedicate ourselves and our N ation to th e ta sk of preserving i t in p erpetuity. Once th e frontiers of this N ation, in a m ilitary sense, were th e oceans th a t w ash our shores.

T oday th e world, in a m ilitary sense, has no frontiers other th a n those of a scientific character, no n atu ral barriers to guard it against an aggressor nation, large or small.

T he frail flower of peace is now susceptible to a neutron.

T he world of science has brought to th e world a t large a strange and alm ost incredible power. I t can kill, it can de­

stro y th e very civilization th a t m ade possible its unleashing, or it can be to th a t sam e civilization th e g ift of th e ages, th e veritable key to th e universe. U tte r annihilation or un­

told benefits can flow from m an’s unlocking of th e force of atom ic energy.

The A to m ic Bomb

Of all th e events of those fateful te n days of A ugust, th e one w ith th e g reatest effect on th e future course of th e world was th e dem onstrated ab ility of scientists to harness th e pow er of th e atom . U nquestionably th e defeat of Ja p a n w ould h av e been achieved in tim e and accom panied b y g reat loss of lives of Allied soldiers, b u t her defeat was assured. Of th a t th e re could be no doubt.

T hus we were in a sense expecting th e Japanese collapse, b u t th e news of th e bom bing of H iroshim a w ith an atomic- bomb was num bing, even though we knew th a t thousands of American, B ritish, and C anadian chemists, physicists, engi­

neers, and other scientists in m any varied fields of research an d developm ent were straining every ounce of energy, an d em­

ploying every known scientific m eans in a desperate race w ith G erm an scientists. I t is well to rem em ber now, and i t will b e doubly im p o rtan t to recall years hence, th a t th e fu tu re of civilization depended upon th e outcom e of this titan ic scien­

tific struggle.

U nreal as it m ight seem even to those who knew some of th e facts and suspected a great m any more, th e age of atom ic power was a t long la st announced to a startled world, a scientific dream had m oved upw ard through years of experi­

m entation to accom plishm ent. T he sta rk reality of this achievem ent when finally assim ilated beggars description.

U nfortunately th e brave prom ise of atom ic energy, th e tool th a t was expected to relieve m an from drudgery, was first 793

794

em ployed in destruction. Like th e fixation of nitrogen, suc­

cess cam e faster because science was pressed to m ake weapons of d estru ctio n . T his is a fa c t th a t m any recognize, b u t do no t ev alu ate properly. Science and scientists first th o u g h t of th e fixation of nitrogen and th e harnessing of th e la te n t energy locked in th e atom as benefits to h u m an ity . Because th e atom ic bom b was used in w ar, because nitrogen was snatch ed from th e air to m ake deadly explosives, because the airplane h ad its m ajor advances during w ar, or because je t propulsion first reacted in th e sam e cauldron, is no reason to castig ate th e m en an d w omen of science. Y et thousands of thoughtless people will condem n scientists, forgetting th a t it is n o t science th a t begets w ar b u t th e selfishness and willful desires of individuals a n d even whole n atio n s. In every w ar in w hich m ankind has engaged, th e fruits of scientific m inds have been em ployed as destru ctiv e forces. T he men and women of science are largely powerless to prevent this pros­

titu tio n u n til m ankind generally learns to live w ith o u t re­

sorting to th e sword as a m eans of adjudicating or resolving differences.

M an y outcries have been registered against th e inhum anity of th e new w eapon. I t is inhum ane, b u t so are all weapons an d w ars. W inston C hurchill provided one of th e m ost strik ­ ing answ ers to th e critics, a t this w riting m ore num erous in G reat B ritain th a n in th e U nited S ta te s :

There were those who considered th a t the atomic bomb should never have been used a t all. I c a D n o t associate myself with such ideas. Six years of to tal war have convinced most people th a t had the Germans or the Japanese discovered this new weapon they would have used it upon us to our complete destruction with the most alacrity.

I am surprised th a t very worthy people—bu t people who in most cases had no intention of proceeding to the Japanese front themselves—should adopt the position th a t rather than throw this bomb we should have sacrificed a million American and a quarter of a million British lives in the desperate battles and massacres of an invasion of Japan. Future generations will judge this dire decision, and I believe if they find themselves in a happier world from which w ar has been banished and where freedom reigns, they will not condemn those who struggled for the benefits amid the horrors and miseries of this grim and ferocious epoch.

The bomb brought peace, b u t m an alone can keep th a t peace.

Or perhaps th e Irish novelist, S t. Jo h n E rvine, in re­

plying to those who criticized th e use of th e atom ic bom b, pro­

vided th e m ost p e rtin e n t rem ark of all when he s ta te d th a t he “ would ra th e r be killed b y an atom ic bom b th a n b y a ru s ty bay o n et th ru s t in to m y in testin es” . W e would ask those who o b ject on th e grounds th a t th e bom b was need­

le ssly cruel to pick o u t a really kind and hum ane m ethod of elim inating an enem y in w ar.

H isto ry will record th e efforts of th e U nited S tates and G reat B rita in to p rev en t th e indiscrim inate killing of civilians.

W hen th e results of th e first successful atom ic bom b te st m ade in th e New M exico d esert were revealed to th e Potsdam Conference, th e now fam ous u ltim atu m was prom ulgated in o rder to give Ja p a n a clear and definite understanding of th e te rm “ unconditional surrender” . She was w arned to yield or suffer th e dire consequences of continuing a one-sided an d entirely hopeless struggle. C itizens of th e leading cities were to ld to ev acu ate th e areas. Such w arnings were in sharp

co n trast to th e tactics of th e n ation g u ilty of th e infam ous sneak a tta c k on Pearl H arbor and th e sacking and rape of N anking.

The Future of A to m ic Energy

I t appears likely th a t th is new tool of m an will rem ain under s tric t governm ent control. P resid en t T ru m an has announced th a t he will recom m end th a t th e Congress of th e U nited S tates consider p rom ptly th e establishm ent of an ap p ro p riate commission to control th e production an d use of atom ic energy w ithin th e U nited S tates and will also m ake fu rth er recom m endations as to how atom ic energy can become a pow erful and forceful influence tow ard th e m aintenance of world peace.

A stunned and very m uch bew ildered world is now asking,

‘ ‘W h at is th e future of atom ic energy?” T h e b rillian t success of a relatively sm all band of scientists,'and in th is noted group were m any chem ists and chem ical engineers, dem onstrates th e definite o p p o rtu n ity now before us of gradually develop­

ing a nuclear in d u stry w ith m any an d varied ram ifications.

W hen th e age of atom s in every hom e will come, no one can foresee. R esearch will go forw ard a t an ever-increasing pace, and practical results, we are confident from th e record of scientists and science in th e p ast, will inevitably follow. As scientists, however, le t us eschew th e role of th e p rophet.

Soberly reflecting w h at has been achieved so far, we m u st honestly inform an expectant and im p atien t public th a t we have b u t crossed th e threshold of an entirely new and revolu­

tio n ary storehouse of energy. L e t us n o t in our boundless confidence and enthusiasm over th e future p erm it th e lay public to assum e th a t any radical decline in th e im portance of present energy sources, such as coal an d oil, will occur for some tim e, perhaps even for several generations. Scientists a t th e m om ent sim ply are accepting still an o th er o pportu­

n ity to serve m ankind.

W ith respect to th e fu tu re of atom ic energy, th e view point of th e A rm y on secrecy is interesting. T he release which ac­

com panied th e H . D . S m yth rep o rt of th e record of th e de­

velopm ent of th e atom ic bom b sta te d th a t, “ th e b est in terests of th e U nited S tates require th e u tm o st cooperation b y all concerned in keeping secret now an d for all tim e in th e fu tu re all scientific and technical inform ation n o t given in th is re­

p o rt or other official releases of inform ation b y th e W ar D ep artm en t” .

If we read and in te rp re t this sta te m e n t correctly, i t is th e in ten tio n of th e A rm y to becom e th e sole censoring au th o rity of all research inform ation and d a ta on nuclear physics. W e earnestly hope th a t no such au th o rity is vested perm anently in our A rm y officials, and th a t fu tu re research is n o t directed a n d controlled b y .th e A rm y. C ertainly a H igh C om m and w hich forced thousands and thousands of scientists in to th e A im ed Forces instead of retain in g th em in research an d pro­

duction, a H igh Com m and th a t has denuded our colleges and universities of teachers an d bona fide stu d en ts in scientific courses, a H igh C om m and th a t has robbed A m erica of a whole generation of fu tu re scientists, an d one t h a t has steadily refused su p p o rt of th e aim s and purposes of th e M cD onough Bill, has d em onstrated th a t i t should n o t be en tru sted w ith an y such au th o rity or pow er over postw ar developm ents in atom ic energy.

September, 1945 I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y 795 In view of th e w idespread knowledge of nuclear physics,

we cannot expect th a t scientists of other nations will not ultim ately discover th e processes b y which th e atom ic bom b was produced and detonated. Indeed, we should expect th a t th e y n o t only will m ake such discoveries independently, b u t will im prove upon them . T hus we m u st n o t depend alone upon secrecy enforced b y th e m ilitary. W e m u st m ake certain th a t our research in th e field of atom ic energy will surpass th a t of an y other n ation on earth. D irection and control of th is program should rest w ith a body of highly qualified individuals, independent of A rm y dom ination and responsible to th e people as a whole. Otherwise A rm y influence will in­

evitably th ro ttle research, and release of research accom plish­

m ents of use to ind u stry and m ankind will be w ithheld or delayed on th e plea of an A rm y officialdom which thinks largely, if n o t entirely, of research as a m ilitary w eapon and therefore necessarily secret inform ation.

T he effects of th e developm ent of atom ic energy on a huge scale upon industry, economic laws, and th e social stru c tu re of th e entire world are unfathom able. T he forces of th e atom in th e hands of a governm ent can become the g reatest m onopoly ever to spaw n upon this earth . A S tate m ay easily become a very sinister force for evil. Incorrect use of such power will lead to th e sam e end in th e age of atom ic energy as i t did in th e age of coal and oil. Only an alert, enlightened a ttitu d e of all th e peoples of th e earth d eter­

m ined th a t th ere shall be no more wars will save m ankind from destruction.

Future of Research

One of th e m ost profound repercussions of th e solution of m an ’s g reatest riddle, th e unlocking of th e energy contained in th e atom , will be in th e fu tu re p a tte rn of research organiza­

tio n in this country. E ven before th e sensational news of A ugust 5 was released, several bills were before Congress de­

signed to provide governm ent w ith varying degrees of control and supervision over future research activities in th e U nited S tates. T he atom ic bom bs dropped over Jap an have m ade it clear beyond all doubt, even to th e laym an, th a t scientific research is absolutely essential to national security. We who are directly engaged in research should be doubly concerned with th e form in which governm ent participates.

T o inform th e m em bers of th e Am e k i c a n Ch e m i c a l So c i e t y and chem ists and chemical engineers generally of th e proposals now before Congress, Chemical and Engineering News published in th e A ugust 25 issue th e essential portions of th e rep o rt of V annevar B ush to th e President, “ Science—

T he Endless F ro n tier” , and is sum m arizing in th e Septem ber 10 issue various bills affecting research and industrial develop­

m ent which Congress will consider in th e near future. E very scientist should stu d y w ith care th e B ush R eport and the proposed m easures. T hree of these bills are identical and em body th e basic proposals of th e B ush R eport. O thers go m uch further in th e degree of control, direction, and super­

vision of research given to governm ent and contain a very different ty p e of philosophy on th e relationship of governm ent, research, industry, science, and scientists. I t is th e d u ty of chem ists and chemical engineers to express to th e ir Sena­

tors and Congressmen their considered opinions on a program th a t represents in m any ways a decided d eparture from the p a st and th a t will have a profound effect on th e whole future

of research. C an we afford to rem ain silent when n o t only th e future of b u r country is a t stake b u t th e fu tu re of every scientist is involved? Now is th e tim e and th e op p o rtu n ity of dem onstrating to Congress and to America th a t scientists can be a p o te n t constructive force to be considered seriously when legislation affecting th e fu tu re welfare of our country hangs in th e balance.

Scientists and the Future

In all of th e millions and millions of printed and spoken words employed by th e press and radio in acquainting America with th e discovery of th e ways and m eans of utilizing atom ic energy, we believe none were em ployed to suggest th a t scien­

tists be g'ven a direct role n th e shaping of th e world th a t is to be. Praise, to be sure, was heaped upon those who pio­

neered in their roles as scientists, y e t few venture th e opin­

ion th a t scientists be invited to particip ate in th e control of the use of atom ic energy. W hy?

Some will say th a t this refusal comes from a lack of suffi­

cient publicity for th e men and wometi of science. B u t is this really so? Scientists receive trem endous am ounts of publicity, b u t alm ost universally th a t publicity is solely based on outstanding scientific achievem ents. W hen th e men and women of science come o u t of th e ir laboratories and in large num bers actively p articipate in th e affairs of th e world, when they contribute to th e shaping of social, cultural, governm ental, and international policies in com m on w ith other professions and groups and w ith th e sam e force and conviction, th e n th e y will be publicized, n o t only for their scientific achievem ents, b u t also for th eir roles as m olders of public opinion. U ntil we as individuals and in large num bers are willing to divide our tim e and energy betw een scientific pursuits and th e affairs of governm ent and of th e world, we will continue to be largely ignored. W e have a m oral re­

sponsibility to m ankind to assist it in so governing itself th a t the forces we release are reserved for good, n o t for evil. No one m an, no sm all group can perform this service. I t is th e responsibility of every individual who rightfully calls him self a scientist and he cannot delegate th a t personal responsibility to others.

There is a pressing need in our new world for still closer cooperation between scientists of all nations. Science recog­

nizes no geographical boundaries, and those who unlock th e wonders of th e universe should and m u st assum e leadership in th e creation of a new spirit of cooperation and under­

standing a t an international level.

The H o p e of the World

The need of th e hour, th e year, th e generation, an d th e century is intelligent understanding of th e forces th a t have been unleashed, an unflagging determ ination on th e p a rt of every man, woman, and child to share th e moral responsibility of seeing th a t th e new power which m an has a t long la st achieved is used solely for th e advancem ent of m ankind—n o t its annihilation.

Now, if ever, th e principles and philosophy of th e Golden Rule m ust be accepted, m u st triu m p h in m a n ’s m ind, and m ust govern his actions. I t is civilization’s la st chance.

R o b e r t F. G o u ld

310 S O U T H M IC H IG A N A V E N U E , C H IC A G O t , I L L .

BAUXITE

Th e necessity to use domestic low-grade bauxite when high-grade ores from South America were cut off early in the war resulted in bringing to completion a combination process for the recovery of alumina values in the red mud waste from the Bayer process. The red mud slurry is ground with limestone and soda ash and kilned at high temperature; the sinter is leached with water, and the filtrate is passed into the process liquors of the Bayer proc­

ess where alumina and soda ash are recovered. The sinter operation is an adjunct to the Bayer process, and together they constitute a more economical treatm ent than a direct sinter on the original bauxite. Four plants utilizing the combination process have been erected, but only two are now in operation because of the present availability of South American ores. Various economic factors and future possibilities of the process are considered in this article.

O

lishment on a commercial basis of a so-called combination process for the treatm ent of low-grade aluminum ores. Pos­

sibilities of such a process had long held the interest of the alumi­

num industry, b u t as long as high-grade ores were available, economic considerations prevented their full development.

W ith the increasing activity of enemy submarines in the Carib­

bean Sea in 1942, however, supplies of South American bauxite which constituted the main source for the domestic aluminum industry at th a t tim e were virtually cut off, and other sources of alumina had to be found. A ttention was once again turned to the utilization of low-grade ores. Chemists of the Aluminum Com­

pany of America quickly brought to the commercial stage a new process, invented by Ralph W. Brown, for treating low-grade bauxites containing between 10 and 18% silica. There is a sub­

stantial reserve of this type of ore in the United States. So great was the need for production capacity of alumina th a t the new plants were started before the pilot plant investigations had been completed. F irst construction was in December, 1942, at the Hurricane Creek plant, Bauxite, Ark.; work on a plant at E ast St. Louis, 111., began a m onth later. Both plants com­

menced operation in December, 1943. U ntil December, 1944, because of a government secrecy order, details of the combination process were released only to certain operating groups.

Unlike smelting operations, such as those for iron in which im­

purities are removed in the slag or in subsequent treatm ents, the electrolytic production of aluminum by the Hall process re­

quires an ore of high purity, since impurities are reduced and then can alloy with the metal. The ore must be in the form of an oxide of the m etal and m ust also be anhydrous. In the early

^ --- One of Seven Scrubbers Which Clean Gases Leaving the 250-Foot Rotating Kilns at the East St. Louis Combination Process Works

days of the industry, alumina to meet those exacting specifica­

tions was available from a manufacturer of chemicals. By the latter p art of 1900 this source was able to provide little more than half the amount of aluminum hydrate needed, and attention was directed to other sources of supply.

Hydrated oxides which occur as bauxites are best suited for production of aluminum metal. Other minerals th a t contain aluminum, such as clay, shale, feldspar, and granite, are not commercial sources of alumina because in them aluminum is combined principally in the form of silicates; the latter are not eco­

nomical to process by present methods. Most American bauxites are obtained from Arkansas, but lesser deposits also occur in Georgia, Tennessee, Virginia, and Alabama. The higher grades of Arkansas bauxites contain about 56-59% alumina, 27-30%

combined water, 5-12% silica, 1-3% ferric oxide, and small amounts of titania.

B A Y E R P R O C E S S

There are two general methods for purifying aluminum ores.

In the acid processes, silica causes no trouble b u t more or less iron is dissolved; in the alkaline processes the reverse is true.

Among the alkaline processes, which utilize fusion with soda ash, alkaline earth carbonates, sulfides, or sulfates, and digestion with alkalies or alkaline earth chlorides, the Bayer method has been most generally used. In the latter, bauxite is digested with caustic soda to dissolve alumina, and the silica, iron oxide, and titania impurities are left behind as an insoluble residue, or

“red mud” , which is separated from the solution. The dis­

solved alumina is then precipitated from the liquor as aluminum trihydrate, washed, and calcined to produce anhydrous alumi­

num oxide.

Raw materials for the Bayer process are bauxite, soda ash, and lime. During digestion most of the alumina goes into solu­

tion as sodium aluminate. The iron, silicon, and titanium re­

main in the insoluble residue, the silica forming an insoluble sodium aluminum silicate which carries both soda and alumina into the red mud. Thus, the silica content of the bauxite is im­

portant since it causes losses of both soda and alumina. This makes it desirable to use bauxite with as low a silica content as possible. Bauxites for the Bayer process are valued according to their silica and alumina contents.

When the digestion is completed, the sodium aluminate liquor is separated from the suspended mud by settling and filtration.

Complete removal of the mud is required because any suspended mud remaining in the liquor will pass on through the process and come out as an impurity in the aluminum oxide. The mud is thoroughly washed, and the wash liquor is clarified along with the sodium aluminate liquor and is then ready for the recovery of alumina. The sodium aluminate solution is pumped to pre­

cipitating tanks where it is mixed with, a seed charge of aluminum hydrate obtained from a previous cycle and circulated for many hours. During this operation approximately half of the alumina content of the liquor precipitates as aluminum trihydrate;

the quantity of alumina cycled is about the same as th a t produced.

When the precipitation cycle is completed, the liquor with the suspended hydrate is pumped through a classification system which separates the coarser particles for washing and calcidation.

The finer fraction is returned to the precipitators as seed charge for the next cycle. The coarse fraction of the hydrate is thor­

oughly washed to reduce the soda content to a low value. The 797