Studia Prawnicze: rozprawy i materiały nr 2, 2014

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Redakcja / Editorial Office

redaktor naczelny / E d ito r-in -C h ie f zastępca redaktora naczelnego / Vice E ditor redaktor statystyczny / Statistics E ditor sekretarz redakcji / M anaging E ditor

— Z bigniew M aciąg — M ariusz Z ałucki — Tadeusz Stanisz — A n n a Szuba-Boroń

www .ka.edu.pl ■ www.sp.ka.edu.pl

Rada naukow a / Stientific Board

C h ristian Bachhiesl [Graz]

A ndrij Bojko [L’viv]

D aniel H . Cole [Bloom ington] Janina Czapska [Kraków] Tom as Davulis [Vilnius]

Tom m aso Edoardo Frosini [Napoli] Aurelijus G utauskas [Vilnius] Pawel Fries [Ivano-Frankivsk] Egidijus Kuris [Vilnius]

Francesco M o ran d i [Sassari] Stephen Riley [Utrecht] C hristian Rolfs [Köln] Janusz Szwaja [Kraków] M aria T zanou [Keele] E m o d Veress [Cluj-Napoca] Jan W id ack i [Kraków]

D ew i W illiam s [Stoke-on-Trent] Vincenzo Z eno-Z encovich [Roma]

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Rada Wydawnicza Krakowskiej Akademii im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego: Klemens Budzowski, Maria Kapiszewska, Zbigniew Maciąg, Jacek M. Majchrowski Copyright© by Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego, Kraków 2014 ISSN: 1689-8052

Korekta: Margerita Krasnowolska

Na zlecenie: Krakowskiej Akademii im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego www.ka.edu.pl

Żadna część tej publikacji nie może być powielana ani magazynowana w sposób umożliwiający ponowne wykorzystanie, ani też rozpowszechniana w jakiejkolwiek formie za pomocą środków elektronicznych, mechanicznych, kopiujących, nagrywających i innych, bez uprzedniej pisemnej zgody właściciela praw autorskich.

Wydawca:

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Kraków 2014 Sprzedaż prowadzi:

Księgarnia u Frycza

Kampus Krakowskiej Akademii im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego ul. Gustawa Herlinga-Grudzińskiego 1, 30-705 Kraków

tel./faks: (12) 252 45 93 e-mail: ksiegarnia@kte.pl

Tłumaczenie i korekta streszczeń: SJO KAAFM

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Druk i oprawa:

Krakowskie Towarzystwo Edukacyjne sp. z o.o. OFICYNA

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Sp is tr e śc i

Słowo od red a k cji... 1

A rtykuły i studia C h ristian Bachhiesl

doktor habilitowany, Muzeum Kryminologii im. Hansa Grossa, Uniwersytet w Grazu, Austria

Szkoła Kryminologii w Grazu — Instytut Kryminalistyczny na Uniwersytecie

w Grazu (1912—1978) ...5 M atth ias Jacobs

profesor doktor, Bucerius Law School, Hamburg, Germany

Ostatnie zm iany w orzecznictwie dotyczącym europejskiego praw a pracy

i praw a socjalnego... 21 Tomasz Milej

doktor habilitowany, docent DAAD w Tanzańsko-Niemieckim Centrum Studiów Wschodnioafrykańskich (TGCL), Uniwersytet Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Istota praw obywatelstwa U nii w najnowszym orzecznictwie T SU E

—potencjał i ograniczenia...41 M arcin A ndreasik

doktorant, Uniwersytet Wrocławski D aniel K arkut

doktorant, Uniwersytet Wrocławski Jacek M azurkiew icz

doktor habilitowany, profesor nadzwyczajny, Uniwersytet Wrocławski Bartosz M ierzw iński

doktorant, Uniwersytet Wrocławski M ateusz Popielas

doktorant, Uniwersytet Wrocławski K arolina Trzeciak-W ach doktorantka, Uniwersytet Wrocławski M aria Z aporow ska

magister, prawnik, Wrocław Z ofia Z aporow ska magister, prawnik, Wrocław

Orwell w realu, czyli o systemie Echelon z perspektywy polskiego p ra w a...55 Tamas Fezer

profesor nadzwyczajny, Uniwersytet w Debreczynie, Węgry

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IV S p is t r e ś c i ■ C o n t e n ts

A nna K onert

adiunkt, Uczelnia Łazarskiego

Odpowiedzialność cywilna biur podróży w USA w świetle orzecznictwa...93 R enata Pawlik

doktor, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego

Z nam iona ilościowe w procesie kontrawencjonalizacji w kontekście zasady

nullum crimen sine lege — wybrane zagadnienia ... 111 M ichał Kobylarz

doktor, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego Jakub G ałka

student, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego

Pojęcie informacji przetw orzonej w kontekście dostępu do informacji publicznej ...147 P io tr Zaporow ski

doktorant, Uniwersytet Wrocławski; Bangkok, Tajlandia

W skazanie w firm ie statusu przedsiębiorcy będącego osobą fizyczną

oraz przedsiębiorcy będącego fundacją ... 159 Izabela Pilarczyk

studentka, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego

Poszukiwanie praw dy w procesie cywilnym ... 169 Rafał D ubow ski

doktorant, Uniwersytet Wrocławski

Egzam iny wstępne na aplikacje prawnicze. Uwagi de lege ferenda

w świetle ustawy deregulacyjnej... 181 Adam W róbel

doktorant, Uczelnia Łazarskiego

Rozwiązanie umowy o pracę bez wypowiedzenia z winy pracownika

z powodu popełnienia oczywistego przestępstwa ... 195 Ju lita Kostka-Twór

doktorantka, Uczelnia Łazarskiego

Prawnofinansowe aspekty bezpieczeństwa energetycznego w Polsce i U E... 209 K rzysztof A. W ójcik

Prokuratura Generalna w Warszawie

Uzyskanie informacji objętych tajemnicą bankową w sprawach dotyczących

przestępstw powszechnych i skarbowych...219 Cezary W iśniewski

magister, Wydział Prawa Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku

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S p is t r e ś c i ■ C o n t e n ts V Recenzje, Glosy, Spraw ozdania, Varia

R enata Pawlik

doktor, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego M arcin Sala-Szczypiński

doktor, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego

Ryszard Więckowski (1952—2 014) — wspomnienie pośmiertne ... 251 T om m aso Edoardo Frosini

profesor, Uniwersytet w Neapolu, Włochy

Democracy, Electoral Systems andL obbies... 255 Paweł Janowski

doktorant, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego

R afał Adamus, Bartosz Groele, Aleksandra Machowska, Zbigniew M iczek, Paweł Kuglarz, Janusz Płoch, Upadłość deweloperska. Komentarz do wybranych przepisów ustawy o ochronie praw nabywcy lokalu mieszkalnego lub domu jednorodzinnego, [D ifin, Warszawa 2012, 2 1 9 s.] ...259 M a rto n Leó Zaccaria

adiunkt, Uniwersytet w Debreczynie, Węgry

Commentary on the principal ju d icia l resolution E B H 2014. M .8.

o f the Curia o f H ungary... 269 Łukasz M roczyński-Szm aj

magister, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski

Sprawozdanie z I I Euroregionalnej Konferencji Naukowej „Mediacja

— m iędzy teorią a praktyką”...279 M ateusz M ądel

doktorant, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego Szymon Solarski

doktorant, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego

Sprawozdanie z konferencji naukowej „50 la t Kodeksu cywilnego.

Sens i nonsens rekodyfikacji”, Kraków, 15—1 6 kw ietnia 2 0 1 4 r....283 D aniel K arkut

doktorant, Uniwersyt Wrocławski

Sprawozdanie z konferencji naukowej „W irtualne światy z perspektywy praw a polskiego, unijnego i międzynarodowego”, Wrocław, 2 3 maja 2 0 1 4 r....291

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Jubileusze w Krakowskiej A kadem ii im A ndrzeja Frycza M odrzew skiego M ariusz Załucki

profesor nadzwyczajny doktor habilitowany, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego

Sprawozdanie z konferencji naukowej Państwo demokratyczne, prawne i socjalne — społeczeństwo, polityka, gospodarka, zorganizowanej z okazji

45-leciapracy naukowej i 70-lecia urodzin Profesora Zbigniew a M aciąga... 307 A n n a Szuba-Boroń

doktorantka, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego

Prof. nadzw. dr hab. Zbigniew A ntoni M aciąg — jubileusz 70-lecia urodzin

i 45-lecia pracy naukow ej...311

Listy gratulacyjne z okazji 45-lecia pracy naukowej i 70-lecia urodzin

prof. dr. hab. Zbigniew a M a cią g a... 315 Lech G arlicki

profesor doktor habilitowany, Uniwersytet Warszawski

Klauzula demokratycznego państw a praw nego...327 Adam Jam róz

profesor doktor habilitowany, Uniwersytet w Białymstoku

Charakter normatywny konstytucji V R epubliki Francuskiej... 333 M arian Grzybowski

profesor doktor habilitowany, Uniwersytet Jagielloński

Jakie państw o — demokratyczne, praw ne czy socjalne?... 339 Zbigniew Maciąg

profesor nadzwyczajny doktor habilitowany, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego

Podziękowania... 341 Lista recenzentów ...347

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S p is t r e ś c i ■ C o n t e n ts VII

C o n ten ts

From the Editors... 2

A rticles a n d Studies C h ristian Bachhiesl

Habilitated Doctor, Hans Gross Kriminalmuseum, Karl-Franzens-University of Graz, Austria

The Graz School o f Criminology — The Criminological Institute

a t the Karl-Franzens-University o f Graz (1912—1 9 7 8 )... 5 M atthias Jacobs

Professor Dr., Bucerius Law School, Hamburg, Germany

Recent Developments in Jurisdiction Regarding European Labour a n d Social Law .. 21 Tomasz Milej

Habilitated Doctor, DAAD long-term lecturer at the Tanzanian-German Centre for East African Studies (TGCL), University Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

The „substance o f the rights” o f the Union citizenship in the recent case law

o f the E C J —potential a n d lim its o f the concept... 41 M arcin A ndreasik

Doctoral Student, University of Wroclaw D an iel K arkut

Doctoral Student, University of Wroclaw Jacek M azurkiew icz

Associate Professor, University of Wroclaw Bartosz M ierzw iński

Doctoral Student, University of Wroclaw M ateusz Popielas

Doctoral Student, University of Wroclaw K arolina Trzeciak-Wach

Doctoral Student, University of Wroclaw M aria Z aporow ska

Lawyer, Wroclaw Z ofia Z aporow ska Lawyer, Wroclaw

Orwell in reality i.e. Echelon system fro m the view o f Polish la w...55 Tamas Fezer

Associate Professor of Law at the University of Debrecen, Hungary

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VIII S p is t r e ś c i ■ C o n t e n ts

A n n a K onert

Associate Professor, Lazarski University

C ivil liability o f travel agencies in the USA in the light o f jurisdiction... 93 R enata Pawlik

Doctor, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University

Q uantitative traits in the process o f contraventionalisation in the context

o f the principle o f nullum crimen sine lege — selected issues... 111 M ichał Kobylarz

Doctor, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University Jakub G ałka

Student, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University

The concept o f processed information w ithin the context

o f public information access... 147 P io tr Zaporow ski

Doctoral Student, University of Wroclaw; Bangkok, Thailand

Indication in the company o f the status o f an entrepreneur being a natural person a n d an entrepreneur being a foundation ... 159 Izabela Pilarczyk

Student, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University

Looking fo r the truth in a legal civil proceeding... 169 Rafał D ubow ski

Doctoral Student, University of Wroclaw

Legal training admission examinations. De lege ferenda comments

in the light o f the deregulatory act ...181 Adam W róbel

Doctoral Student, Lazarski University

Em ploym ent contract term ination w ithout notice due to employee’s fa u lt resulting fro m com m itting an evident offence... 195 Ju lita Kostka-Twór

Doctoral Student, Lazarski University

Legal a n d financial aspects o f energy security in Poland and

in the European U n io n... 209 K rzysztof A. W ójcik

Prosecution General, The Prosecution of Poland, Warsaw

O btaining information covered by bank secrecy in issues connected

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S p is t r e ś c i ■ C o n t e n ts IX Cezary W iśniewski

Assistant, University of Bialystok

Bank card recognized under Article 2 7 8 o f the Penal Code ... 239

B o o k Reviews, Glosses, R ep o rts, Varia R enata Pawlik

Doctor, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University M arcin Sala-Szczypiński

Doctor, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University

Ryszard Więckowski (1952—2 014) — in m em o ria m...251 T om m aso Edoardo Frosini

Professor, University of Naples, Italy

Democracy, Electoral Systems an d Lobbies... 255 Paweł Janowski

Doctoral Student, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University

R afał Adamus, Bartosz Groele, Aleksandra Machowska, Zbigniew M iczek, Paweł Kuglarz, Janusz Płoch, Upadłość deweloperska. Komentarz do wybranych przepisów ustawy o ochronie praw nabywcy lokalu mieszkalnego lub domu jednorodzinnego, [D ifin, Warszawa 2012, 2 1 9 s.] ...259 M ä rto n Leó Zaccaria

University of Debrecen Faculty of Law, Debrecen, Hungary

Commentary on the principal ju d icia l resolution E B H 2014. M .8.

o f the Curia o f H ungary... 269 Łukasz M roczyński-Szm aj

Assistant, University of Rzeszow

I I Euroregionalna Konferencja Naukow a „Mediacja — m iędzy teorią a praktyką”. 279 M ateusz M ądel

Doctoral Student, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University Szymon Solarski

Sprawozdanie z konferencji naukowej „50 la t Kodeksu cywilnego.

Sens i nonsens rekodyfikacji”, Kraków, 15—1 6 kw ietnia 2 0 1 4 r....283 D an iel K arkut

Doctoral Student, Krakow University of Wroclaw

Sprawozdanie z konferencji naukowej „W irtualne światy z perspektywy praw a polskiego, unijnego i międzynarodowego”, Wrocław, 2 3 maja 2 0 1 4 r....291

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X S p is t r e ś c i ■ C o n t e n ts

Ju b ilees at th e A ndrzej Frycz M odrzew ski K rakow U niversity M ariusz Załucki

Associate Professor, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University

Sprawozdanie z konferencji naukowej Państwo demokratyczne, prawne i socjalne — społeczeństwo, polityka, gospodarka, zorganizowanej z okazji

45-leciapracy naukowej i 70-lecia urodzin Profesora Zbigniew a M aciąga 307 A n n a Szuba-Boroń

Prof, nadzw. dr hab. Zbigniew A ntoni M aciąg — jubileusz 70-lecia urodzin

i 45-lecia pracy naukow ej...311

Listy gratulacyjne z okazji 45-lecia pracy naukowej i 70-lecia urodzin

prof. dr. hab. Zbigniew a M a cią g a... 315 Lech G arlicki

Professor, University of Warsaw

Klauzula demokratycznego państw a praw nego...327 Adam Jam róz

Professor, University of Bialystok

Charakter normatywny konstytucji V R epubliki Francuskiej... 333 M arian Grzybowski

Professor, Jagiellonian University

Jakie państw o — demokratyczne, praw ne czy socjalne?... 339 Zbigniew Maciąg

Associate professor, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University

Podziękowania... 341 Reviewers ... 347

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S t u d i a P r a w n i c z e . R o z p r a w y i M a t e r i a ł y ■ S t u d i e s i n L a w : R e s e a r c h M a t e r i a l s : 2 ( 1 5 ) : 1 —2 ( 2 0 1 4 )

Słowo od redakcji

O d d a je m y do rąk Państw a ko lejny n u m e r naszego czasopism a. N u m e r w yjąt kow o obszerny. D zieje się ta k z k ilku przyczyn. Ta najważniejsza to jubileusz Profesora Z b ig n ie w a M aciąga, naszego red ak to ra naczelnego: siedem dziesię ciolecie u ro d zin i czterdziestopięciolecie pracy naukow ej to zacne rocznice. G ratulacje, w zruszenia, uściski d ło n i, życzenia - w szystko co w zw iązku z ta k im jubileuszem m o ż n a sobie w ym arzyć - to ju ż było. 20 października o d była się bow iem w ielka uroczystość, podczas której winszowaliśmy. M im o to, św iętujem y dalej.

D o sto jn y Jubilacie, C zcig o d n y Panie R edaktorze! Przed P an em wiele w y zw ań, także tych zw iązanych z naszym czasopism em . A by n ig d y nie zabrakło P a n u siły twórczej. A d m u lto s annos!

M a r iu s z Z a łu c k i, zastępca red a k to ra naczelnego

Tadeusz S ta n isz, red ak to r statystyczny

A n n a S zu b a -B o ro ń , sekretarz redakcji

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2 S t u d i a P r a w n i c z e . R o z p r a w y i M a t e r i a ł y , n r 2 ( 1 5 ) : 1 —2 ( 2 0 1 4 )

From the Editors

W e h a n d over to y o u a yet a n o th e r issue o f o u r m agazine. For several reasons it is a particularly extensive one. First a n d forem ost, it is because o f th e jubilee o f Professor Z b ig n ie w M aciąg, o u r editor-in-chief. 7 0 th b irth d a y a n d 4 5 th anniversary o f academ ic career is in d e e d a g o o d reason to celebrate. C o n g ra t ulations, expressions o f em o tio n , handshakes, a n d best wishes - we have h a d th e m all. 20 O c to b e r m a rk e d a g ra n d cerem ony, d u rin g w h ic h w e ex tended o u r best wishes. N evertheless, we keep celebrating.

H o n o u ra b le C elebrator, E stee m ed E d ito r-in -C h ief! N u m e ro u s challenges lie ah ead o f you, in c lu d in g th o se related to o u r m agazine. M a y th e creative spirit be w ith y o u at all tim es: A d m u lto s a nnos!

M a r iu s z Z a lu c k i, V ice E d ito r

Tadeusz S ta n isz, Statistics E d ito r

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A

r t y k u ł y

i studia

A

r t i c l e s

and Studies

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S t u d i a P r a w n i c z e . R o z p r a w y i M a t e r i a ł y ■ S t u d i e s i n L a w : R e s e a r c h M a t e r i a l s : 2 ( 1 5 ) : 5 —2 0 ( 2 0 1 4 )

Christian Bachhiesl

Habilitated Doctor, Hans Gross Kriminalmuseum, Karl-Franzens-University of Graz, Austria

The Graz School o f Crim inology

- The Crim inological Institute

at the Karl-Franzens-University o f Graz (1 9 1 2 -1 9 7 8 )1

T h e A u strian city G raz is one o f th e b irth places o f crim in o lo g y as an in d e p e n d e n t b ra n c h o f science; it once was one o f th e centres o f crim in o lo g y a n d th u s a „M ecca o f m o d e rn kno w led g e society“.2 In this s h o rt essay I w a n t to give a sh o rt overview over th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e G raz school o f c rim in o lo gy, startin g w it its fo u n d a tio n sh o rtly before W o rld W ar I a n d e n d in g w ith th e closing o f th e crim inological in stitu te in 1978. T h e focus lies o n th e m ain p ro tag o n ists a n d th e ir crucial p o in ts o f crim inological research; th e im p o r tan ce o f th e G raz school o f crim in o lo g y for th e V iennese b ran ch o f A ustrian c rim in o lo g y a n d its effect o n th e d ev elo p m en t o f crim inology in E u ro p e a n d th e U S A c a n n o t be analysed in this article.3

1 . H a n s G r o s s

- c r i m i n o l o g y i n t h e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n M o n a r c h y

In th e year 1912 H a n s G ross ( 1 8 4 7 -1 9 1 5 ) fo u n d e d th e C rim in o lo g ical I n stitu te at th e K arl-F ranzens-U niversity G raz, th u s c o n trib u tin g decisively to th e in stitu tio n a lisa tio n o f crim in o lo g y at university level a n d so b ec o m in g a „pioneer in m o d e rn forensic science“ a n d a „father o f m o d e rn crim inal 1 I want to thank Prof. Jan Widacki for the invitation to present the history of the Graz school

of criminology in the „Studia Prawnicze“.

2 P. Becker, Kriminalmuseum, Graz: Der praktische Blick am Tatort, [in:] Mekkas der Moderne. Pilgerstätten der Wissensgesellschafi, ed. H. Schmundt, M. Vec, H. Westphal, Köln et al. 2010, p. 348-353.

3 I. Burney, N. Pemberton, Making Space for Criminalistics: Hans Gross and fin-de siecle CSI,

“Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences” 2013, No. 44, p. 16-25.

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6 C H R I S T I A N B A C H H I E S L

investigations“.4 G ross developed an encyclopaedic c o n cep t o f crim inology, u n ify in g practical investigation w o rk a n d theoretical reflection u n d e r one epistem ological roof. Before his academ ic career, w h ich sta rte d 1898 at th e U niversity o f C zernow itz (today T ch ern iv tsi in U k rain e), Gross h a d served for decades as an investigating judge, p u b lic p ro sec u to r a n d crim inal judge. H e becam e fam ous for his „ H a n d b o o k for Investigating Ju d g es“,5 w h ich was p u b lish e d first in 1893 a n d saw m a n y ed itions in th e follow ing years (the 10th a n d final G e rm a n ed itio n was p u b lish e d 1 9 7 7 /1 9 7 8 ) a n d was tran slated in to several languages, in c lu d in g E nglish a n d Russian. H is seco n d m ajo r w o rk was th e „C rim in al Psychology“,6 th e first ed itio n o f w h ic h ap p eared in 1898, a n d in th e sam e year Gross sta rte d ed itin g th e „Archives o f C rim in a l-A n th - ropo lo g y a n d C rim in a listics“.7 This jo u rn a l was an in terd iscip lin ary platfo rm for theoretical a n d practical research co n c e rn in g all fields o f know ledge th a t w ere relevant for crim inology; it was re n a m e d „Archives o f C rim in o lo g y “ in 1916, u n d e r w h ic h n a m e it still is edited, th u s b eing th e oldest existing crim inological journal.

Fig. 1. Hans Gross (1 8 4 7 -1 9 1 5 )

4 R.M. Gardner, T. Bevel, Practical Crime Scene Analysis and Reconstruction, Boca Raton 2009, p. 4.

5 H. Gross, Handbuch fü r Untersuchungsrichter, Polizeibeamte, Gendarmen u. s. w., Graz 1893. 6 H. Gross, Criminalpsychologie, Graz 1898.

7 Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie und Kriminalistik 1ff. (1898ff.); from 1916 on published under the title ,„Archiv für Kriminologie“.

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T h e G raz S c h o o l o f C r im in o lo g y - T h e C r im in o lo g ic a l I n s tit u te .. 7 H a n s G ross a n d his c o n cep t o f an encyclopaedic, aetiological crim inology w ere very influential. Gross was a central figure in crim inological science as well as in crim inal literatu re - h e was th e in c a rn a tio n o f Sherlock H olm es, even o u td o in g h im in crim inalistic accuracy.8 M a n y aspects o f his w o rk a n d life w o u ld be in terestin g - his m o d el role for th e typical detective in crim inal literatu re for exam ple, or th e precarious a n d tragic relationship betw een h im a n d his only son, th e psycho-analyst a n d anarchist O tto G ross (1 8 7 7 —1 9 2 0 ).9 H e re w e will focus o n so m e central epistem ological characteristics o f G ross’ crim in o lo g y :10

H a n s G ross was co n v in ced o f th e im p o rta n c e o f n atu ral science — only if c rim in o lo g y a n d crim inal law are based o n th e in d u ctiv e m e th o d s o f th e exact sciences, th e y can b eco m e sciences them selves. T h e investigation o f lawful causation was th e core o f scientific w ork, a n d so G ross trie d to apply th e exact m e th o d s o f classical physics in crim inology. In a positivistic m a n n e r he w a n te d to uncover th e t r u th n o t by e n te rin g a h e rm e n e u tic process b u t by strict em pirical in d u c tio n a n d by d ed u ctiv e conclusion. H u m a n itie s like his to ry or p h ilo so p h y a n d th e ir ,w eak‘ or ,u n c e rta in ‘ m e th o d o lo g y 11 w ere only o f secondary interest to h im . W h a t really c o u n te d was th e discovery o f h a rd facts, o f th e real th in g s or realities („R ealien“), a n d to find o u t th e realities H a n s G ross tran sferred th e crim inalistic m e th o d o f fact fin d in g to c rim in o logical a n d crim inal-psychological problem s. Even m otives, in te n tio n s a n d th e m en ta l state o f h u m a n beings m aterialized to h a rd realities. In general, G ross u n d e rs to o d h u m a n beings as realities th a t s h o u ld be ex am in ed like any given object related to a crim inal case. B ut u n lik e th e m ere m aterial character o f any object th a t served as piece o f evidence, th e u n c e rta in ty characterizing

8 W.M. Johnston, Österreichische Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte. Gesellschaft und Ideen im Donau raum 1848 bis 1938, Wien et al. 1974, p. 107f.

9 Oceva drzava — majcin sin / Vaterstaat — Muttersohn, ed. G.M. Dienes, E. Dubrovic, G. Kocher, Exhibition catalogue, Rijeka 2007; Die Gesetze des Vaters. Problematische Identitätsansprüche. Hans und Otto Gross, Sigmund Freud und Franz Kafka, ed. G.M. Dienes, R. Rother, Exhibition catalogue, Wien et al. 2003.

10 For a detailed analysis of Hans Gross’ epistemology see: C. Bachhiesl, Zwischen Indizienpara digma und Pseudowissenschaft. Wissenschaftshistorische Überlegungen zum epistemischen Status kriminalwissenschaftlicher Forschung (= Austria: Forschung und Wissenschaft interdisziplinär, Vol. 8), Wien et al. 2012, p. 11-203; C. Bachhiesl, Die Grazer Schule der Kriminologie. Eine wissenschaftsgeschichtliche Skizze, „Monatsschrift für Kriminologie und Strafrechtsreform“ 2008, Vol. 91, No. 2, p. 87-111, 88-93; P. Becker, Zwischen Tradition und Neubeginn: Hans Gross und die Kriminologie und Kriminalistik der Jahrhundertwende, [in:] Die Gesetze des Va ters. 4. Internationaler Otto Gross Kongress, ed. A. Götz von Olenhusen, G. Heuer, Marburg an der Lahn 2005, p. 290-309; L. Gschwend, Justitias Griff zur Lupe. Zur Verwissenschaftlichung der Kriminalistik im 19. Jahrhundert (= Grazer Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Studien, vol. 60), Graz 2004.

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th e m an ifestatio n s o f h u m a n life caused p ro b lem s to exact objectification. Since th e n atu ral sciences d id n o t offer reliable a n d broadly accepted m e th o d s o f m easu rin g in te n tio n s a n d qualia, it was exactly his confidence in th e exact m e th o d s th a t o p e n e d Gross’ epistem ology for u n n o tic e d political a n d id eo logical value ju d g e m en ts. F ro m to d ay ’s p o in t o f view it is clear th a t m a n y o f th e tru th s G ross th o u g h t h e h a d fo u n d were m ere assertions a n d reflections o f social values. So in som e aspects G ross’ epistem ology does n o t sh o w th e p a th to scientific t r u th b u t to th e re p ro d u c tio n o f social a n d political s ta n d ards given by th e p atriarchal a n d sem i-feudalistic, sem i-capitalistic regim e o f th e A u s tro -H u n g a ria n M onarchy. This becom es clearly visible w h e n G ross’ theories co n c e rn in g gypsies — his favourite scapegoats — or fem ale crim inals are e x am in ed .12 T h e aetiological a n d encyclopaedic crim in o lo g y was n o t only a b ra n c h o f science d ed icated to th e search for tru th , it was also an a n cilla iu ris

a n d an in s tru m e n t for political a n d social c o n tro l a n d discipline. (W h ic h in m y o p in io n does n o t m e an th a t it com pletely co n stru c te d crim in o lo g y or ,the evil‘, as som e p o st-m o d e rn in sp ired a u th o rs co n c lu d e ,13 b u t it in stru m e n ta l- ized crim in ality as well as crim inal science for political purposes.)

Besides physics a n d its exact m eth o d o lo g ic al ideal, ev o lu tio n ary b io lo gy was a n o th e r natural-scientific discipline th a t was especially im p o rta n t for G ross’ crim inology. G ross was im pressed by th e strin g en t a n d careful a rg u m e n ta tio n o f C harles D a rw in , a n d in his „ C rim in al Psychology“, h e ex ten sively referred to D a rw in ’s b o o k „The Expressions a n d E m o tio n s in M a n a n d A n im a ls“.14 B ut even if G ross trie d to elaborate his a rg u m e n ts as carefully a n d free from prejudices as D a rw in did, h e rath er often replaced D a rw in ia n biology by th e social D a rw in ism prevalent in th o se days.15 D a rw in ’s co n cep t o f biological evolution was m ixed w ith th e concepts o f deg en era tio n a n d inevitable social a n d genetic decline. N e ith e r th e ,real‘ crim inals n o r th e ,real‘ insane p e rp e trato rs w ere a challenge for crim inology, b u t th e „psychopathic degenerates“ a n d th e „sim ple degenerates“, like G ross n a m e d th e m . W h a t sh o u ld be d o n e w ith p eo p le w h o were n o t insane e n o u g h for a lu n a tic asylum a n d n o t crim inal e n o u g h for (enduring) im p riso n m e n t? — Gross was th in k in g a b o u t d e p o rta tio n to som e rem o te islands in th e A d riatic sea, w here these

12 C. Bachhiesl, Bemerkungen zur kriminologischen Physiognomik und zu ihren antiken Wurzeln, [in:] Antike Lebenswelten. Konstanz — Wandel — Wirkungsmacht. Festschrift fü r Ingomar Weiler zum 70. Geburtstag (= Philippika. Marburger altertumskundliche Abhandlungen, Vol. 25), ed. P. Mauritsch et al., Wiesbaden 2008, p. 829-859.

13 P. Strasser, Verbrechermenschen. Zur kriminalwissenschaftlichen Erzeugung des Bösen, Frankfurt am Main-New York 22005.

14 H. Gross, Criminalpsychologie..., p. 104ff., 559ff.; C. Darwin, The Expressions and the Emotions in Man and Animals, London 1872.

15 T. Etzemüller, Ein ewigwährender Untergang. Der apokalyptische Bevölkerungsdiskurs im 20. Jahrhundert, Bielefeld 2007.

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T h e G raz S c h o o l o f C r im in o lo g y - T h e C r im in o lo g ic a l I n s tit u te .. 9 degenerates, w h o in his eyes w ere victim s o f an excess o f culture, c o u ld find b ack th e ir w ay to h ealth y n a tu re .16 T h e focus o n deg en eratio n was a c o m m o n place in crim in o lo g y at th e tu r n o f th e 19th century, a lth o u g h th e re were som e differences — th e Italian crim inologist Cesare L o m b ro so for exam ple was co n v in ced th a t deg en eratio n was n o t caused by a surplus o f cu ltu re b u t by a lack o f it - L o m b ro so advocated an atavistic th e o ry o f degeneration w h ich c u lm in a te d in th e c o n cep t o f th e d e lin q u e n te n a to or b o rn c rim in a l,17 a c o n c ep t th a t H a n s Gross, w h o was a m e m b e r o f th e m o d e rn school o f c rim inology follow ing Franz v o n Liszt, d id n o t appreciate.

G ross’ confidence in th e capacity o f th e exact, em piricist m e th o d s o f n a t ural science lead h im to th e conclusion th a t it was n o t th e form al law b o u n d to parag rap h s th a t fo rm e d th e core o f a m o d e rn law system , b u t th e scien tific physical a n d psychical exploration o f th e crim inal. Therefore, G ross was co n v in ced th a t th e d etailed know ledge o f th e laws o f n a tu re was m o re im p o r ta n t th a n th e know ledge o f crim inal law. For a d istan t fu tu re he even could im agine a system o f crim inal law w ith o u t a code o f p en al law - th e laws o f n a tu re sh o u ld replace th e rules o f law.18 T his was o f course c o n tra d ic to ry to th e p rin cip le o f legality, w h ich is one o f th e basic rules o f a m o d e rn c o n stitu tio n a l state. B ut G ross d id n o t t h in k th a t th e p rin cip le n u llu m crim en, n u lla p o e n a sin e lege a n d th e unequivocal a d m in istra tio n o f th e law were essential for th e future; to h im th e individualistic psychological a n d biological ju d g e m e n t by a crim inal c o u rt seem ed to be m o re im p o rta n t th a n any form al p rin cip le s19 - he c o u ld n o t see th e d an g er o f judicial arbitrariness.

So for th e d ev elo p m en t o f crim inology H a n s G ross is an am bivalent figure: H e was o ne o f th e fo u n d in g fathers o f this n ew b ra n c h o f science a n d a p io n e e r o f its in stitu tio n alizatio n . H is crim inological theories were o f e n o rm o u s influence u p to th e 1960s, a n d his crim inalistic ten ets are still o f im p o rta n c e today. B ut h e was also a p re cursor o f a w ay o f th in k in g th a t u n d e rm in e d th e rule o f (form al) law. O f course h e c a n n o t be m a d e responsible for d evelopm ents th a t occu rred after his d eath, b u t he delivered som e o f th e pave-stones w ith w h ic h th e street th a t s h o u ld lead in to to talitarian ism was built. G ross believed th a t th e exact m e th o d s o f th e n atu ral sciences w o u ld m ak e penal law a n d crim in o lo g y m o re scientific; h e co u ld n o t see th e danger o f an ideological or political abuse o f scientific lines o f a rg u m e n ta tio n . 16 H. Gross, Degeneration und Deportation, [in:] H. Gross, Gesammelte Kriminalistische Aufsätze,

Vol. 2, Leipzig 1907, p. 70-77; H. Gross, Die Degeneration und das Strafecht, ibidem, p. 1-11; C. Bachhiesl, Zwischen Indizienparadigma.. ., p. 114-137.

17 C. Lombroso, Der Verbrecher (homo delinquens) in anthropologischer, ärztlicher und juristischer Beziehung^ In deutscher Bearbeitung von O. Fraenkel, 2 vol., Hamburg 21894/1890. 18 H. Gross, Antrittsvorlesung; „Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie und Kriminalistik“ 1905,

Vol. 21, No. 1-2, p. 169-183. 19 Ibidem, p. 176f.

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2 . A d o l f L e n z - T h e F i r s t R e p u b l i c a n d A u s t r o - F a s c i s m

In 1915, H a n s Gross fell ill w ith p n e u m o n ia (his crim inological in stitu te was lo cated in th e n o t h e a te d basem en t o f th e m a in b u ild in g o f th e U niversity o f Graz), h e d ie d on 9th o f D e c e m b e r 1915. H is successor was A d o lf Lenz (1 8 6 8 - 1 9 5 9 ) , an expert for in te rn a tio n a l law a n d p en al law b o rn in V ienna. In contrast to Gross, L enz was n o t a v o tary o f n atu ral science. L enz believed in holism a n d in tu itio n : Because m a n is n o t alone a rational b u t to a n o t too sm all extent also an irrational being, he sh o u ld be analysed by irrational m e ans. L enz was co n v in ced th a t h e was able to p u t h im se lf inside th e m in d a n d soul o f a n o th e r p erson by in tu itio n , th u s grasping his or h e r p ersonality a n d d etectin g his or h e r „personality g u ilt“. Lenz called this form o f irrational a n d intu itiv e science crim inal biology.20

Fig. 2. A d o lf Lenz (1 8 6 8 -1 9 5 9 )

20 A. Lenz, Grundriß der Kriminalbiologie. Werden und Wesen der Persönlichkeit des Täters nach Untersuchungen an Sträflingen, Wien 1927; C. Bachhiesl, Zur Konstruktion der kriminellen Persönlichkeit. Die Kriminalbiologie an der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz (=Rechtsgeschicht- liche Studien, Vol. 12), Hamburg 2005, p. 41-179; C. Bachhiesl, Der Fall Josef Streck. Ein Sträfling, sein Professor und die Erforschung der Persönlichkeit (= Feldforschung, Vol. 1), Wien et al. 22010; C. Bachhiesl, Die Grazer Schule der Kriminologie.., p. 93-97. For the criminal biol ogy in Germany see J. Simon, Kriminalbiologie und Zwangssterilisation. Eugenischer Rassismus 1920—1945, Münster et al. 2001; T. Kailer, Vermessung des Verbrechers. Die Kriminalbiologische Untersuchung in Bayern, 1923—1945, Bielefeld 2011.

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T h e G raz S c h o o l o f C r im in o lo g y - T h e C r im in o lo g ic a l I n s tit u te .. 11 A d o lf L enz trie d to give crim in o lo g y a holistic tu rn . Lenz referred to th e psychological concepts o f C . G . J u n g ( 1 8 7 5 -1 9 6 1 ) a n d Karl Jaspers (1 8 8 3 - 1 9 6 9 ) a n d to th e C o n s titu tio n a l B iology o f E rn st K retsch m er ( 1 8 8 8 -1 9 6 4 ), b u t th e central m e th o d o f his crim inal biology was irrational in tu itio n like th e p h ilo so p h ers R ic h a rd M üller-Freienfels ( 1 8 8 2 -1 9 4 9 ) a n d L udw ig Klages ( 1 8 7 2 -1 9 5 6 ) ta u g h t it. T h e roots o f Lenz’ th in k in g reached back to th e holis tic concepts o f G e rm a n ro m a n tic ism - C arl G u sta v C a ru s ( 1 7 8 9 -1 8 6 9 ) for exam ple was o n e o f th e scholars w hose ideas c o n trib u te d to crim inal biology. C aru s was co n v in ced th a t th e character a n d th e soul o f a p erso n w ere m ir ro red in its physical ap p earan ce,21 a n d this idea was also crucial for Lenz. (To day som e ten d en cies tow ards a ,rebiologicalization‘ seem to revitalize a m ore so p h isticate d version o f this idea.22)

L enz to o k p a rt in th e d eb ate c o n cern in g th e reform o f penal law th a t h a d b eg u n in th e 19th c e n tu ry a n d d id n o t co m e to rest even in th e 1920s. T he trad itio n ally o rie n te d jurists w a n te d to stick w ith th e classical co n cep t o f guilt, whereas th e su p p o rte rs o f th e m o d e rn school o f crim in o lo g y (like H a n s Gross) w a n te d to replace guilt - as it was d efined by penal law - by psychol ogy a n d th e c o n cep t o f dangerousness. A d o lf Lenz d id n o t w a n t to give up th e idea o f guilt a n d p u n is h m e n t - he th o u g h t th a t th e p eople w o u ld never u n d e rs ta n d a n d approve a ,soul-less‘ p en al law th a t d id n o t k n o w guilt a n d retaliation - , b u t he w a n te d to m o d ify it: N o t th e guilt co n c e rn in g a single crim inal act o f a p erson sh o u ld be exam ined, b u t th e „personality g u ilt“, th e general guilt th a t e m a n a te d from th e character o f a person. A n d a crim inal sh o u ld be p u n is h e d no m o re for in d iv id u al crim inal acts b u t for th e a m o u n t o f „personality g u ilt“ h e carried w ith h im .

T h e m e th o d L enz used for exploring this „personality g u ilt“ was m ere in tu itio n or, as h e called it, „in n er in sp e c tio n “; L enz th o u g h t h e c o u ld place h im se lf inside th e analyzed person, th u s sh arin g his or h er in n e r life.23 O f course this was far away o f th e natural-scientific exactness a n d inductive em piricism G ross h a d h a d in m in d , b u t n atu ral science was n o t settin g th e stan d ard s for A d o lf Lenz, w h o follow ed a cu rre n t o f th o u g h t th a t becam e n oticeably im p o rta n t after W o rld W ar I a n d d id n o t appreciate n atu ral sci ence; th e latter was recognized as a m ajo r cause for th e crisis o f th e occidental 21 C.G. Carus, Symbolik der menschlichen Gestalt. Ein Handbuch zur Menschenkenntnis. Neu be

arbeitet und erweitert von T. Lessing, Celle 1925.

22 P. Strasser, Naturalistische Kriminologie?, [in:] Paradigmenwechsel im Strafverfahren! Neurobio logie a u f dem Vormarsch (= Schriftenreihe des Instituts für Konfliktforschung, Vol. 30), ed. I. Rohde, H. Kammeier, M. Leipert, Berlin 2008, p. 65-80; S. Krauth, Die Hirnforschung und der gefährliche Mensch. Über die Gefahren einer Neuauflage der biologischen Kriminologie,

Münster 2008.

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cu ltu re .24 W ith his intu itiv e a n d irrational m e th o d , L enz trie d to reach th e core o f th e crim inal personality. F ro m to d ay ’s p o in t o f view th e results o f his research do n o t seem to be very reliable a n d tru stw o rth y : W h e n , for exam ple, ex am in in g a m anslayer a n d b urglar w h o h a d b ro a d shoulders b u t n arro w hips a n d th in legs, Lenz c o n c lu d e d th a t this physical appearance m irro re d a d istu rb an ce o f psychical e q u ilib riu m 25 — an im pressing line o f reasoning, indeed. For th e ex am in ed p erso n this expertise was o f course n o t am u sin g at all, since it un co v ered a g o o d dose o f personality guilt w hich, h a d Lenz’ c o n cep t o f a reform o f penal law been realized, w o u ld have m e a n t a m ore severe p u n ish m e n t.

L enz was an in te rn a tio n a lly well respected scientist. H e becam e p resid en t o f th e In te rn a tio n a l C rim inal-B iological Society in 1927, a n d his „ C o m p e n d iu m o f crim inal biology“26 was th e first system atic p resen tatio n o f this, well, b ra n c h o f crim inal science. B ut Lenz d id n o t o n ly p u sh his scientific career, he also was an influential politician. L enz was m e m b e r o f th e „ H e im w e h r“, a conservative p aram ilitary u n it in th e First A u strian R epublic, a n d after th e e stab lish m en t o f th e A ustro-fascist regim e he becam e a m e m b e r o f th e „Fed eral C u ltu re C o u n c il“ (B u n d esk u ltu rrat) a n d th u s was a rath er h ig h repre sentative o f th e S chuschnigg g o v e rn m e n t1 9 3 4 to 1938. T his was th e reason w h y h e h a d to retire w h e n , in M a rc h 1938, A ustria was occu p ie d by N azi G erm an y .27 W ith his retire m e n t th e character o f crim inal biology in G raz changed.

3 . E r n s t S e e l i g - N a z i c r i m i n o l o g y

E rn st Seelig (1 8 9 5 —1955) h a d sta rte d his studies o f th e law in G raz, w h en H a n s Gross still was d irecto r o f th e crim inological in stitu te. 1919 h e served as u n p a id assistant at this in stitu te, a n d here h e m ad e his career. Seelig d id n o t follow th e holistic tu r n Lenz h a d carried o u t, h e felt b o u n d to th e exact epistem ology Gross h a d established as central characteristic o f crim inology. As w e will see, this d id n o t m ean th a t Seelig was n o t in flu en ced by th e in tu itive m e th o d , b u t his w o rk was p rincipally based o n in d u ctiv e em piricism .

24 E. Husserl, Die Krisis der europäischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Phänomenolo gie. Eine Einleitung in die phänomenologische Philosophie. Herausgegeben, eingeleitet und mit

Registern versehen von E. Ströker (= Philosophische Bibliothek, Vol. 292), Hamburg 31996; A. Harrington, Reenchanted Science. Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm I I to Hitler,

Princeton 1996.

25 A. Lenz, Grundriß der Kriminalbiologie..., p. 71. 26 Ibidem.

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T h e G raz S c h o o l o f C r im in o lo g y - T h e C r im in o lo g ic a l I n s tit u te .. 13 Seelig also k e p t o n w ith crim inalistic analyses a n d p ro d u c e d crim inalistic c o u rt expertises, an activity th a t d id n o t find th e a tte n tio n o f A d o lf L enz.28

Fig. 3. Ernst Seelig (1895—1955)

In th e 1920s, o n e o f Seelig’s central research fields was te stim o n y research, especially th e „registration o f expression“, an early form o f lie detectio n , us ing a p o ly g rap h th a t registered th e m o v em en ts o f th e exam inees legs a n d arm s a n d th e th o racic a n d a b d o m in a l b re a th in g .29 B u t this was just o n e field in w h ich Seelig was active - his w o rk c o m p rised various topics o f crim inology a n d penal law, for exam ple gam e o f chance a n d its crim inal im p licatio n s,30 th e psychology o f p im p s 31 a n d th e ex te rm in a tio n o f life n o n w o rth living.32

A n im p o rta n t research area in crim in o lo g y was typology. T h e categori zation o f crim inal b eh av io u r a n d personalities was a d arin g project, because reality show ed a b ro a d variety o f crim inal p h e n o m e n a . T his diversity m ad e 28 Ibidem, p. 180-222; C. Bachhiesl, Die Grazer Schule der Kriminologie..., p. 97-101.

29 C. Bachhiesl, The Search for Truth by „Registration o f Expression" — Polygraph Experiments in Graz in the 1920s, „European Polygraph“ 2013, No. 7, p. 55-68; E. Seelig, Die Registrierung unwillkürlicher Ausdrucksbewegungen als forensisch-psychodiagnostische Methode, „Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie“ 1927, No. 28, p. 45-84.

30 E. Seelig, Das Glücksspielstrafrecht, Graz 1923.

31 E. Seelig, Die psychosexuelle Struktur des Zuhälters, „Monatsschrift für Kriminalpsychologie und Strafrechtsreform“ 1929, No. 3, p. 169-173.

32 E. Seelig, Die Freigabe der Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens, ,„Archiv für Kriminologie“ 1923, No. 75, p. 304-306.

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it difficult to fin d general physical a n d psychical characteristics o f ,typical crim in als‘, b u t, as th e G e rm a n crim inologist G u stav A schaffenburg stated, nonetheless certain h o m o g e n o u s types o f crim inals differing characterolog- ically from ,n o rm a l‘, n o n -c rim in a l h u m a n beings c o u ld be defined.33 A d o lf L enz was focussed o n th e intu itiv e exploration o f individual persons — al th o u g h he w a n te d to let his crim inal biology e n d in a typology o f crim inals, he c o u ld n o t reach a level th a t p e rm itte d general, abstract defin itio n s.34 E rn st Seelig to o k u p this loose e n d o f Lenz’ w o rk a n d developed a typology th a t co n ced ed th e existence o f atypical crim inals, th u s p aying trib u te to individual particularities, b u t classified th e m ajo rity o f crim inals in to eight types. This ty p o lo g y was first p u b lish e d 1 9 3 1 ,35 was m o d ifie d later o n a n d re-p u b lish ed to g e th e r w ith an em pirical stu d y carried o u t by Karl W ein d ler w ith th e p u r pose to attest th e practical usefulness o f Seelig’s classification.36 (H ere w e have to p o in t to th e fact th a t Seelig — like all m em b ers o f th e G raz school o f c rim inology — d id th in k th a t a typical crim inal was a scientific ab stractio n o f real crim inal p h e n o m e n a a n d n o t an an th ro p o lo g ical reality; in co n trast to th e L om b ro so -sch o o l th e G raz school d id n o t believe in th e existence o f th e hom o d elin q u e n s as a special variety o f ho m o sa p ien s? 7) T h e eight types according to Seelig were:38

th e w o rk -sh y professional crim inal

th e crim inal lacking th e po w er to resist c o m m ittin g p ro p e rty offences th e aggressive crim inal

th e crim inal lacking sexual self-control th e crim inal d u e to a crisis

th e prim itive-reactive crim inal th e crim inal d u e to conviction th e crim inal lacking social discipline

T his typology was th e b a ck b o n e o f Seelig’s c o n ce p t o f crim inology, as can be clearly seen w h en regarding his m a n u a l o f crim inology;39 it also was in te g ra te d in to crim inal biology. Seelig to o k over th e crim inological in stitu te 33 G. Aschaffenburg, Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung. Einleitung in die Kriminalpsychologie

fü r Mediziner, Juristen und Soziologen; ein Beitrag zur Reform der Strafgesetzgebung, Heidelberg 31923, p. 194.

34 A. Lenz, Grundriß der Kriminalbiologie. , p. 136.

35 E. Seelig, Das Typenproblem in der Kriminalbiologie, „Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie“ 1931, No. 42, p. 515-526.

36 E. Seelig, K. Weindler, Die Typen der Kriminellen, Berlin-München 1949. 37 Ibidem, p. 4.

38 Ibidem, p. 2-17.

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T h e G raz S c h o o l o f C r im in o lo g y - T h e C r im in o lo g ic a l I n s tit u te .. 1S in G raz after th e an n e x atio n o f A ustria by G e rm a n y in 1938, h e becam e a m e m b e r o f th e N S D A P a n d was a p p o in te d professor by H itle r in 1941. Seelig d id n o t o m it th e irrational a n d intu itiv e crim inal biology. H e p ro g ra m m atically insisted o n natural-scientific standards, b u t d id n o t com pletely give u p in tu itio n as a m e th o d o f gaining know ledge; he ju st d id n ’t talk ab o u t it any m ore. In stead o f in tu itio n n o w race biology a n d th e typology p resen ted above becam e th e m o st im p o rta n t elem ents o f crim inal biology. C rim in o lo gy becam e an in s tru m e n t o f N azi ideology: T h e crim inal-biological analysis was n o m o re o nly carried o u t w ith crim inals b u t also ex ten d ed to so-called „quarter-jew s“ w h o generally w ere n o t allow ed to m a rry - b u t th e ir m arriage co u ld exceptionally be allow ed if th e y sh o w ed sufficient racial characteristics, a n d these racial characteristics w ere detecte d (or n o t) by E rn st Seelig w ith th e h elp o f his m o d ified crim inal biology th a t was re-m o d elled to a general racial biology.40

H a n s G ross’ a b o v e m e n tio n e d idea o f a scientifically based penal law w ith o u t a code o f penal law was realized in a perv erte d fo rm in th e N azi era, w h en a p erson co u ld be convicted because o f th e offence o f th e so called „healthy feeling o f th e p e o p le “. Seelig app re ciated this quasi-legal arbitrariness.41 Seelig’s c o n c ep t o f crim in o lo g y was genuinely organicistic. H e th o u g h t th a t n o t th e crim inal individual, b u t c rim in ality as a w h o le was a sort o f c a n cer destroying th e h ealth o f th e „b o d y o f th e p e o p le “ („V olkskörper“). Like a physician saves th e life o f a m a n by c u ttin g o u t th e cancerous ulcer, th e crim inologist s h o u ld p rovide th e h ealth o f th e p eople by rem oving th e c rim inals from society.42 A fter th e e n d o f W o rld W ar II, Seelig was rem oved from office only for a sh o rt tim e; h e was rehab ilitated a n d w e n t to S aarbrücken (G erm any) in 1954, w here h e was o n e o f th e fo unders o f th e crim inological in stitu te at th e U niversity o f th e Saarland. In 1955 h e d ied from lu n g cancer.

4 . H a n n s B e l l a v i c a n d G e r t h N e u d e r t

- c r i m i n o l o g y i n t h e S e c o n d A u s t r i a n R e p u b l i c

H a n n s Bellavic ( 1 9 0 1 -1 9 6 5 ) was d irecto r o f th e crim inological in stitu te in G raz from 1955 u n til his d eath in th e year 1 9 6 5 .H e h a d started his career in this in s titu tio n in 1928. Bellavic c o n tin u e d th e tra d itio n o f crim inal biology

40 C. Bachhiesl, Das Jahr 1938 und die Grazer Kriminologie. Gebrochene Kontinuitäten in einer aufstrebenden Wissenschaftsdisziplin, „Historisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Graz“ 2009, No. 38/39, p. 93-120.

41 C. Bachhiesl, Das Verbrechen als Krankheit. Zur Pathologisierung eines strafrechtlichen Begriffs, „Virus. Beiträge zur Sozialgeschichte der Medizin“ 2008, No. 7, p. 11—40, 30f.

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in Graz. H e o m itte d th e racial-biological focus Seelig h a d in tro d u c e d to crim i nal biology; in th e exam ination form still rem ain ed th e question after th e race o f th e exam inee. This question h a d been p a rt o f th e form since th e 1920s, b u t after W o rld W ar II, like before 1938, it was n o t o f significant im portance. Bel lavic d id n o t declare in tu itio n a central m ethodological item , b u t because o f his resum ing to A d o lf Lenz’ crim inal-biological co n cep t th e in tuitive m e th o d was always a m u te p re c o n d itio n o f Bellavic crim inal biology.43

4

Fig. 4 . H anns Bellavic (1 9 0 1 -1 9 6 5 )

A fter W o rld W ar II th e discussion in A ustria ab o u t replacing th e classical penal law by natural-scientifically justified m easures o f preventive d e te n tio n a n d defense sociale becam e less excited. A co m p ro m ise betw een b o th systems becam e m o re a n d m o re pro b ab le, a n d th e in te g ra tio n o f co m m itta l elem ents in to th e classical penal law based o n guilt a n d responsibility - like th e A us tria n reform o f penal law o f 1974 realized it - ap peared in outlines. Bellavic here saw th e chance for b rin g in g in crim inal biology w h ic h fo u n d a n ew focus o n juvenile delinquency. Bellavic c o m p le te d Seelig’s ty p o lo g y o f c rim inals, w h ich still played an im p o rta n t role, w ith his ow n ty p o lo g y aim ed at th e degree o f re h ab ilitatio n p ro b a b ility o f juvenile perp etrato rs. R eh ab ilita tio n o f co n v icted crim inals was a to p ic o f grow ing im p o rta n c e in th e 1950s 43 Bellavic’ concept of criminology is outlined in C. Bachhiesl, Z ur Konstruktion der kriminellen

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T h e G raz S c h o o l o f C r im in o lo g y - T h e C r im in o lo g ic a l I n s tit u te .. 17 a n d 1960s; it was increasingly em phasized by crim in o lo g y th a t n o t only th e crim inal individual was guilty for c o m m ittin g a crim e, b u t society as w hole, a n d th a t w ith a co n v ictio n n o t only th e guilty crim inal was p u n is h e d b u t th e guilty conscience o f society.44 Bellavic p re sen ted a typology c o m p risin g five types o f juvenile crim inals; his final aim was to e x ten d these types to ad u lt crim inals.45 A cco rd in g to th e prognosis o f reh a b ilita tio n p ro b a b ility th e k in d o f p u n is h m e n t s h o u ld vary: Bellavic suggested a „conviction w ith o u t p u n is h m e n t“, a „lesson p u n is h m e n t“ (for exam ple a slap in th e face), a „therapy p u n is h m e n t“, a n d preventive d eten tio n .

T h e prognosis o f re h ab ilitatio n p ro b a b ility was based o n a „ m u lti-d im e n sional m e th o d “ using „ u n d e rsta n d in g reg istra tio n “ — a m e th o d n o t fu rth e r specified, b u t in its core identical w ith Lenz’ in tu itio n w h ich was b ro u g h t in to a m o re m o d e rn fo rm .46 A m o d e rn feauture o f this ,new ‘ crim inal biology was th e inclusion o f w o m en ; E llin o r R eckenzaun, a collaborator o f Bellavic, e x am in ed 2 0 0 fem ale prisoners. This was th e first large scale fem ale c rim in o logical ex am in atio n in G raz.47

Bellavic h a d revived crim inal biology in Graz, a n d also o n in te rn a tio n a l level crim inal biology seem ed to co m e back. T h e In te rn a tio n a l C rim in a l-B i ological Society was re fo u n d ed , a n d Bellavic was a m e m b e r o f th e m an ag in g co m m ittee. B ut th e blossom o f crim inal biology was fading — it c o u ld n o t be in teg rated in th e reform o f penal law. N o t crim inologists as universal ex perts for all p h e n o m e n a c o n cern in g crim e a n d crim inals in th e sense o f H a n s G ross were th e specialists w h o s h o u ld b rin g in n e w know ledge a n d expertises, b u t psychologists a n d psychiatrists. (If these experts are b e tte r qualified for answ ering th e various questions co n c e rn in g a p erson’s guilt a n d personal as well as social circum stances is an o p e n q u estio n — even to d a y w e can find th e o p in io n th a t these q u estions w o u ld b e tte r be answ ered by sociologically tra in e d crim inologists.48) This d ev elo p m en t b ro u g h t a decisive loss o f im p o r tan ce o f crim inal biology a n d o f th e crim inological b ra n c h o f th e G raz school o f crim inology.

44 A. Mergen, Methodik kriminalbiologischer Untersuchungen, Stuttgart 1953, p. 7.

45 H. Bellavic, Soziale Prognose, Mitteilungen aus gerichtlicher Medizin und Psychiatrie, Ge richtsmedizin und — Psychologie, „Kriminologie, Strafrecht und Strafvollzug“ 1958/1959, No. 2-4, p. 8-20, 9.

46 H. Bellavic, Soziale Prognose..., p. I4ff.

47 E. Reckenzaun, Die Retardierung der kriminellen Frau als kriminalbiologische Erscheinung, „Ar chiv für Kriminologie“ 1960, No. 126, p. 1-11.

48 M. Bock, Kriminologie im Strafverfahren. Über eine Lücke im Erbe von Hans Gross, [in:] Kri minologische Entwicklungslinien. Eine interdisziplinäre Synopsis, ed. C. Bachhiesl, S. Bachhiesl, J. Leitner, Wien et al. 2014 (in print).

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W h a t rem a in e d was crim inalistics. H a n s G ross h a d always trie d to tie theoretical crim in o lo g y a n d practical-technical crim inalistics together; th e crim inological in stitu te at th e U niversity o f G raz always co m p rised a c rim i nalistic statio n in w h ic h crim inalistic analyses w ere carried o u t a n d forensic expertises w ere p ro d u c e d . H a n n s Bellavic was an acknow ledged expert for h a n d w ritin g a n d script analyses,49 a n d he also w o rk e d at drill a n d saw traces a n d o th e r physical, chem ical a n d technical p ro b le m s.50 Bellavic d ie d in 1965.

Fig. 5. Gerth Neudert (1928—2001)

C rim inalistics were in th e focus o f G e rth N e u d e rt (1 9 2 8 - 2 0 0 1 ) , w h o fol low ed H a n n s Bellavic as d irecto r o f th e crim inological in stitu te in 1967. Like all crim inologists in Graz, N e u d e rt was a jurist, h e h a d started to w o rk at th e in stitu te in 1955. A lth o u g h N e u d e rt, to o , trie d to c o n tin u e w ith crim inal biology - for exam ple, h e ex am in ed a 50 year o ld m a n w h o always d id start sexual actions w ith m in o r juveniles w h e n he h a d h e a rd c h u rc h bells ringing; N e u d e rt sta ted a „hearing fetishism “51 - h e c o u ld n o t change th e fact th a t

49 H. Bellavic, Die Sekundären Veränderungen bei Schriftverstellung, Graz 1948.

50 H. Bellavic, Identifikation von Sägespuren, ,„Archiv für Kriminologie“ 1934, No. 34, p. 139— 146; H. Bellavic, Identifikation von Bohrspuren, „Archiv für Kriminologie“ 1938, No. 102, p. 97-113.

51 G. Neudert, Ein eigenartiger Fall von Gehörfetischismus, „Archiv für Kriminologie“ 1960, No. 125, p. 64-71. For Neudert’s criminology see C. Bachhiesl, Die Grazer Schule der Kriminolo gie..., p. 105f.

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T h e G raz S c h o o l o f C r im in o lo g y - T h e C r im in o lo g ic a l I n s tit u te .. 19 th e glory days o f crim inal biology were over. B ut N e u d e rt was a n o te d expert for h a n d w ritin g analysis a n d graphology - h u n d re d s o f his expertises still fill th e archive o f th e H a n s G ross M u se u m o f C rim inology. H e also carried o u t diverse crim inalistic exam inations, for exam ple ballistic analyses or analyses o f forged d o cu m en ts.

N e u d e rt was th e last d irecto r o f th e crim inological in stitu te at th e U n iv er sity o f Graz. Like its founder, H a n s Gross, N e u d e rt c o m b in e d crim inology a n d crim inalistics - this c o m b in a tio n was a c o n sta n t characteristic o f th e G raz school o f crim inology. B ut crim in o lo g y in G raz d id n o t p a rticip a te in th e change o f crim inological p arad ig m s th a t to o k place in th e 1960s a n d 1970s (sociologic tu rn , labelling etc.), it re m ain ed basically aetiological a n d biological. This was o n e reason for its decline. In 1 9 7 7 /1 9 7 8 , th e 10th a n d up to n o w last G e rm a n ed itio n o f H a n s G ross’ fam ous „ H a n d b o o k “ was p u b - lish ed .52 In 1978, th e crim inological in stitu te was closed a n d in teg rate d in to th e in stitu te o f penal law at th e U niversity o f Graz. C rim in o lo g y was again just an auxiliary discipline for crim inal law. N e u d e rt c o n tin u e d his w o rk u n til his retire m e n t in 1993. O n 8th o f Ja n u a ry 2001 w ith h im th e last d irecto r o f th e crim inological in stitu te died. In 2 0 0 3 th e H a n s Gross M u se u m o f C r im inology, th e o ld teach in g collection th a t fo rm e d p a rt o f th e crim inological in stitu te from its beginnings on, was reo p e n ed as a p u b lic m u se u m in th e m a in b u ild in g o f th e U niversity o f Graz. Since 2 0 0 9 it is p a rt o f th e U niversi ty M u seu m s o f th e U niversity o f Graz. T oday it is a sm all, b u t well established in s titu tio n w ith m o re th a n 6 .0 0 0 visitors p er year, a n d it is also a place o f historical-crim inological a n d epistem ological research a n d a p latfo rm for th e co o p eratio n o f science, justice, a d m in istra tio n a n d executive p ow er.53 T he in stitu te o f penal law shows a re-aw akened interest in crim inological research a n d teaching. T h e G raz school o f crim in o lo g y w ith all its scientific m erits a n d its epistem ological weaknesses a n d p ro b le m a tic political a n d ethical im p lic a tio n s is n o w a p a rt o f history; b u t th e H a n s Gross M u se u m o f C rim in o lo g y at th e K arl-Franzens-U niversity o f G raz is a lieu d e m em o ire th a t tries to m ake visible th e c o n n ectio n s betw een past a n d present.

52 H. Gross, F. Geerds, Handbuch der Kriminalistik. Wissenschaft und Praxis der Verbrechensbe kämpfung, Vol. 2, Berlin 1977-1978.

53 These cooperative efforts resulted among others in three international and interdisciplinary congresses: „Criminological Theory and Praxis“ 2009, Nov. 9; „100 Years Criminology in Graz - Criminological developments in interdisciplinary perspective“ 2012, Oct. 18-20; „Measur ing the Soul - Validity and Genealogies of the Quantification of Qualia“ 2013, Oct. 17-19. For the activities of the Hans Gross Museum of Criminology see: www.kriminalmuseum.uni- graz.at.

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Streszczenie

S z k o ła K r y m in o l o g ii w G r a z u - I n s t y t u t K r y m in a lis t y c z n y n a U n iw e r s y t e c ie w G r a z u ( 1 9 1 2 - 1 9 7 8 )

Wraz z założeniem w 1912 roku Instytutu Kryminologii na Uniwersytecie w Grazu au striacki prawnik i kryminolog Hans Gross stał się jednym z twórców kryminologii jako gałęzi nauki na poziomie uniwersyteckim, uznawanym również w czasach dzisiejszych. Niezmienną cechą szkoły kryminologii w Grazu było ujednolicenie kryminalistyki praktycznej i kryminologii teoretycznej. Sporządzanie ekspertyz sądowych oraz pomoc w miejscu dokonania przestępstwa były zarówno częścią czynności kryminologów, jak i próbą przekształcenia prawa karnego w naukę ścisłą, intuicyjno-irracjonalnym bada niem przestępców z pomocą biologii kryminalnej, czy opracowaniem typologii prze stępców. Szkoła kryminologii w Grazu była mocno związana z polityką, jej przedstawi ciele doskonale wpasowywali się w poszczególne reżimy. Hans Gross był monarchistą patriarchalnym, Adolf Lenz był w latach 1934—1938 członkiem austrofaszystowskiego rządu, a Ernst Seelig przekształcił kryminologię w narzędzie ideologii nazistowskiej. Po II wojnie światowej szkoła w Grazu nie uczestniczyła w zmianie paradygmatów, które zachodziły w kryminologii w latach sześćdziesiątych i siedemdziesiątych; był to jeden z powodów jej podupadania. W roku 1978 Instytut Kryminalistyczny na Uniwersyte cie w Grazu został włączony do Instytutu Prawa Karnego, kryminologia ponownie stała

się jedynie ancilla iuris sprzed czasów Hansa Grossa. O d 2003 Muzeum Kryminologii

na Uniwersytecie w Grazu stanowi lieu de memoire ewolucji współczesnej kryminologii

oraz punkt wspólny historii nauki i rzeczywistych badań kryminologicznych.

Słowa kluczowe: Hans Gros, Adolf Lenz, Ernst Seelig, kryminologia, Uniwersytet w Grazu

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S t u d i a P r a w n i c z e . R o z p r a w y i M a t e r i a ł y ■ S t u d i e s i n L a w : R e s e a r c h M a t e r i a l s : 2 ( 1 5 ) : 2 1 —4 0 ( 2 0 1 4 )

Matthias Jacobs

Professor Dr., Bucerius Law School, Hamburg, Germany

Recent Developm ents in Jurisdiction Regarding

European Labour and Social Law

I n t r o d u c t i o n

In 2 0 1 2 a n d 2 0 1 3 , n u m e ro u s decisions o f th e E C J o n la b o u r a n d social law have been delivered. Therefore, these c o m m e n ts are restricted to a - o f course very subjective - selection. T h e rep o rt focuses o n la b o u r law a n d begins w ith th e in d iv id u al la b o u r law, w h ich m o st o f th e decisions p e rta in to (e.g. c o n c lu sion, c o n te n t a n d te rm in a tio n o f an em p lo y m e n t relationship). This section is follow ed by tw o ju d g e m e n ts o n in te rn a tio n a l ju risd ic tio n a n d in te rn a tio nal lab o u r co n tract law a n d th e n by decisions o n collective la b o u r law. T he conclusion finally is ded icated to th e recent d evelopm ents in th e area o f social law, follow ed by a few basic considerations. T here is n o te n d e n c y w ith in th e ju risd ic tio n o f th e E C J tow ards a p artic u lar dev elo p m en t, w hatsoever it is still strongly engaged w ith th e n atio n al law o f th e M e m b e r States a n d therefore enforces changes w ith in there. T h e a n ti-d isc rim in a tio n ju risd ic tio n p o in ts som e c o n so lid atio n , p articularly in regard to age discrim in atio n . T h e E C J also c o n tin u e d a n d ex p an d ed th e ju risd ic tio n co n c e rn in g th e law o f holidays, w h ich began w ith th e verdict in S c h u ltz - H o ff in 2 0 0 9 . In contrast to th e afo re m e n tio n e d developm ents, it is strik in g th a t th ere is n o th in g essentially n e w to re p o rt c o n cern in g th e transfer o f u n d e rta k in g s after th e sensational ju d g m e n t A le m o -H e rro n 2 in th e s u m m e r o f last year. In th e daily press, th e tw o decisions G a lin a M eister3 a n d K u c u k A have caused q u ite a stir.

1 Case C-350/06 and C-520/06 [2009], ECR 2009, p. I-179 = ECLI:EU:C:2009:18. 2 Case C-426/11 [2013], ECLI:EU:C:2013:521.

3 Case C-415/10 [2012], ECLI:EU:C:2012:217. 4 Case C-586/10 [2012], ECLI:EU:C:2012:39.