Industrial and Engineering Chemistry : industrial edition, Vol. 36, No. 12

Industrial and

Engineering Chemistry

*

Volume 36 • Num ber 12 DECEMBER, 1944

R E P R IN T E D IT IO N

A D V E R T IS IN G O M IT T E D

IN D U S T R I A L a n d E N G I N E E R IN G C H E M I S T R Y , i n d u s t r i a l e d i t i o n

IS S U E D D E C E M B E R 7, 1944 • V O L . 36, N O . 12 • C O N S E C U T IV E N O . 23

♦ A Tribute to Thom ai M id g le y , Jr. (Inwrf pr«c«dlng editorial pas« 1077.) . . Charles F. Kettering E D I T O R I A L S ...10 77 Effect o f M o le c u la r Structure o f Fuels on Power and E fficiency o f Internal Combustion

E n g in e s ...Charles F. Kettering 1 0 7 9 Blending A v ia tio n G asoline C o m p o n e n ts ... S. Stanley Lukofsky 10 85 Preparation o f A m m o n iu m N itra te fo r Fertilizer Use ...

W illia m H . Ross, J. Richard Adams, J. Y. Yee, and C o lin W . W h ittake r 1 0 8 8 Critical S olution Temperatures with C y clic H ydrocarbons . . . A lfre d W . Francis 1 0 9 6 O il-P ape r D i e l e c t r i c s ... John D. Piper and N . A . Kerstein 1 1 0 4 Thermal C o n d u ctivity o f Carbon B la c k s ... W . R. Smith and G . B. W ilke s 1111 Plastication and Processing o f G R - S ... G eorge R. V ila 11 13 Pure H ydrocarbons from Petroleum ...

John G ris w o ld , J . W . M o rris , and C . F. V an Berg 1 1 1 9 Mechanism o f H e a l B odying Linseed O i l . . . . H . E. Adams and P. O . Powers 1 1 2 4 Effect o f U ltra v io le t L ig h t on Cellulose A c e ta te and N i t r a t e ...

T. S. Law ton, Jr., and H . K. Nason 1 1 2 8 A n tifo u lin g P a in ts ... G . H . Y oung, W . K. Schneider, and G . W . Seagren 1 1 3 0 Infrared R adient H e a t Baking o f Enamels . . . . R. C . Ernst and E. F. Schumacher 1 1 3 2 Dehydrated Sweet Potatoes fo r Ethanol P r o d u c tio n ...

J. A . Jump, A . I. Z a ro w , and W . H . Stark 1 1 3 8 Petroleum C oke. Formation and P ro p e rtie s ...

A . G . V . Berry and R. Edgeworth-Johnstone 1 1 4 0 V a p o r-L iq u id E quilibriu m Constants for Benzene, Toluene, and M e th v lc yclo h e xa n e

H a rry G . Drickamer and John R. Bradford 1 1 4 4 Tannin Extract from Western H e m lo c k B a r k ...

E. F. Potter, K. T. W illiam s, T. L. Swenson, and I. C . Feustel 1 1 4 6 G el-Form ing D erivative o f W heat G lu te n . H . C . Reitz, R. E. Ferrel, and H . S. O lc o tt 1 1 4 9 Bacterial Proteinase from W aste Asparagus B u t t s ...

Leo Kline, L. R. M acD o nne ll, and Hans Linew eaver 1 1 5 2 D istribution E q u a t io n ...J. A . Cam pbell 1 1 5 8 L iq u id Densities o f V o la tile H yd ro ca rb o n M i x t u r e s ...

G eo rge H . Hanson, Blaine B. Kuist, and G eo rge G ranger Brow n 1161 Plastic Characteristics o f C o a l ... R. E. B rew er 1 1 6 5 Redwood T a n n in ...W illia m A . M anuel and H arry F. Lewis 1 1 6 9 A c e ty la te d Casein Fiber . A . E. B row n, W . G . G o rd o n , E. C . G a ll, and R. W . Jackson 1171 Carbon Tetrachloride-Tetrachloroethylenc System ...

H ugh J. M cD onald and W illia m R. M c M illa n 1 1 7 5 N ovem ber's H e a d lin e s ... 1 1 7 7 Equipment and Design, by Charles O w e n B r o w n ... (A d v t. Sect.) 61 Instrumentation, by Ralph H . M u n c h ...(A d v t. Sect.) 67 Plant M anagem ent, by W a lte r von P echm ann...(A d v t. Sect.) 75 I. i t E. C. Reports, 5. A s W e See It, 55. La st-M inu te Flashes . . (A d v t. Sect.) 1 1 6

Copper smelters are working night and day to supply demands of war for this vital metal.

(Courtesy, Anaconda Copper Company) — E D IT O R : W A L T E R J . M U R P H Y

Associate E ditor: F. J. V A N A N T W E R P E N Assistant E ditor: Ha r r y W . S T EN ER SO N Assistant to E ditor: N . A . P A R K IN S O N M anuscript E ditor: H E L E N K . N E W T O N M a ke-up E ditor: B E R T H A R E Y N O LD S - M anuscript Assistant: S T E L L A A N D E R S O N

A d viso ry Board W . L. BADGER

H . E. B A R N A R D W . H . D O W G A S T O N D U B O IS C . F. KETTERING O . E. M A Y C . S. M IN E R H . R. M U R D O C K

A . S. R IC H A R D S O N W . A . S C H M ID T R. N . SHREVE L. V . STECK C . M . A . STINE E. C . S U L L IV A N E. R. W E ID L E IN J . M . WEISS

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I ND U S T RI A L and ENGINEERING C H E M I S T R Y

ncrvsic

ON THE CHEMICAL WORLD TO

Am m unition P roduction. A lbert J. Engel, Representa­

tive from M ichigan, is the ranking m em ber of the W ar D epartm ent Subcom m ittee o f the H ouse A ppropriations C om m ittee. A s such he was given permission b y the Secretary o f W ar to visit ordnance plants to stu d y p ro­

du ction costs and inspect records. He visited tw en ty -tw o o f the fifty-eight governm ent-ow n ed establishm ents and on his return made a report to Congress on what he found.

His trip covered ten states; he inspected four smokeless-powder, six T N T , seven shell-loading, one shell-forging, two bag- loading, and tw o chemical plants. His reports are encouraging, if not downright flattering.

Feeling that many of our readers may have missed his address to Congress, we here briefly report on his findings.

Some of the information, from another source, was in our August I . & E . C. Re p o r t s(Tides o f Production, advertising page 5). Engel supplies more o f the same.

Th e first four m onths o f this year saw the United States make six billion pounds o f smokeless, T N T , R D X , rocket pow der and other explosives that Engel said “ we dare n ot even m ention” . In governm ent plants, since 1942, chem ­ ical costs have been reduced sh arply; thus anhydrous am ­ m onia, per ton, dropped from $39.60 to $28.80. D im eth y l- aniline was 19.60 cents per pound, is now 10.89; din itro- toluene, once 9.67 cents per pou nd , has been reduced to 6.17 cents; diphenylam ine, 24.59 cents in 1942, can now be m ade for 17.55 cents per pou nd . A gallon of toluene was 30.40 cents and is n ow 19.06. These savings in chem ­ ical costs are m atched in m any cases b y the reduction in price and cost o f shells and in a reduction o f man-hours necessary to produce m ost items on the agenda.

In the August ^Re p o r t there was mention of the fact that T N T lines were making three times the qu an tity th ey were designed for because o f a new ly discovered m ethod. W e now know what that m ethod is. Prior to the war, nitric acid was pum ped in to the nitrator first, then toluene was added slow ly. T w o hours and five m inutes were needed for each cycle to be com plete. A new system was trie d ; toluene was first added to the v a t and then nitric acid was added slow ly, bu t n ot quite so slow ly as the addition

A t t e n t i o n o f o u r r e a d e rs is a g a in c a lle d t o t h e t h r e e d e p a r t m e n t s I n tr o d u c e d In t h e N o v e m b e r I s s u e . T h e y a p p e a r In t h e a d v e r t is in g s e c t io n a s f o l l o w s : E q u i p m e n t a n d D e s ig n , p a g e 6 1 ; I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , p a g e 6 7 ; P l a n t M a n a g e m e n t , p a g e 7 5 .

in the opposite m anner. Instead of 2 hours, the elapsed tim e becam e a b ou t 35 to 40 minutes. T hus the capacity o f each vat was increased som e three times.

T h e huge T N T plant at W eldon Spring, M o ., has been shut dow n — another v ictim o f advancing tech n ology. It was discovered that flaked T N T m elted m ore easily and allowed bom bs to be loaded m ore qu ick ly. It w ould have cost the Arm y some 20,000 dollars per line to convert the W eldon Spring plant to a flaking unit;

instead of making the change, the Arm y decided to put the plant on the non­

producing list.

The accident frequency in powder- and shell-loading plants is low, ac­

cording to Engel, and only one indus­

try had a better record— the women’s clothing industry. T h e chemical in­

dustry had three times as m any accidents as the loading and powder-manufacturing plants.

C oncerning costs and excess profits, Engel said, in one or tw o cases the com p a n y th at to o k o d the additional w ork of running a governm ent plant was raised to the higher tax bracket, and all the profit was thus w iped out.

T ota l cost o f operating the plants up to M arch o f this year, he said, was $1,477,130,000; the total fixed fee of the com panies was $65,000,000 or 4 .4 % o f operating costs.

Assum ing that these com panies were in th e 7 0 % excess profit bracket, 45 m illion o f the 65 m illion dollars were handed to the G overnm ent. T h e n et cost to the cou n try for producin g this $1,477,130,000 o f m unitions was som e

$19,500,000 or a b ou t 1 .3 % . I f the com panies were in the 7 5 % in com e tax bracket, the fee decreased to a little m ore than 1 % . One o f the larger com panies in the 8 5 % bracket, said Engel, m ade over $500,000,000 w orth o f m aterial with a profit, over three years, o f on ly $3,300,000, or a b ou t 0 .6 6 % earned fee.

R u b b e r T re e G asoline. Canada celebrated the first anniversary o f rubber produ ction a t the Sarnia pla n t a short time ago. On that occasion was revealed a story which am ply illustrates the possibility, at times, o f converting modern chemical plants to uses other than the ones they were originally designed for. (Continued on page 8)

A n in ie^ p Ą eta tioe m onthhf. d itje il ¿o* ch e m iill, ch em ica l ew fineesU ., a*td e¿cecM ¿¿oeÁ. in th e ch em ica l p/ioduci*up and. ch em ica l conLum intf, in d u ih iiei.

S S & 3 S& •Mmtm

Today Today

Sarnia has two ethylbenzene sections, ethylbenzene being a forerunner of styrene. As a result o f a combination of favor­

able factors, the capacity of the two units is approximately twice that needed. This meant that one of the two units was always kept in reserve for breakdowns, periodic cleanings, and alterations.

H ow ever, early in 1944 there was a trem endous dem and for aviation gasoline, and produ ction expansion of one of the constituents o f m odern high-octane gas, cum ene or isopropylbenzene, was greatly needed. T h e extra eth yl­

benzene unit was adaptable to m aking cum ene, for the reaction is catalytic and similar to th at for making eth yl­

benzene. T h e on ly draw back to using the setup for making cum ene was th at at the particular tim e no supply o f propylene was available. Little daunted, the unit was set to work m aking ethylbenzene, for in the m eantim e fuel experts had decided th at ethylbenzene was an effec­

tive substitute for cum ene in aviation gasoline. For several m onths 2 million pounds of ethylbenzene went into the aviation gasoline produced for the U nited N a­

tions; at the will of the operator the material ended up either as Buna S rubber or as airplane fuel.

Later propylene becam e available from the petroleum units which are closely integrated with the Sarnia opera­

tions, and from Septem ber o f this year the ou tpu t of cumene from the Sarnia rubber pla n t has been 2,500,000 pounds per m onth. W e have heard the Japanese are making gasoline from natural rubber bu t suspect they cannot do it so easily as does the syn th etic rubber tree (as the Sarnia plant shows) m erely b y pushing a few con ­ trol buttons.

Patents and P u re R esearch . T h e N ational Association o f M anufacturers recently published a chart titled “ The Enigm a of the P atent C u rve” . Its origins are found in the question: “ Is research suffering because o f the w ar?”

W e attem pt no answer, having d evoted an editorial to that su bject in M a y , 1943 (page 500), and having had strong view s from J. H . Simons o f Pennsylvania State College in the June 10, 1943, issue o f Chemical and E n g i­

neering News (page 912). T h e answer, it seems agreed, is that basic research is suffering; the inventions that are surprising our enemies, and our own (Continued on page 10)

public when they learn about them much later, are based on basic research done before the present restrictions on invention came about. The chart is reproduced here be­

cause it opens another question, even more difficult to answer— namely, “ D o the research programs of big business adequately foster the search for new facts?”

A dm ittin g that m ost inventions are based on prim ary concepts, uncovered b y the pure researcher, an u north odox view point will help in interpreting the chart in a different w ay. T h e V ictorian age was a golden era as far as basic premises are concerned. Then were the facts discovered for m uch o f our advancem ent in physics, chem istry, m edi­

cine, and mechanics. T h e patents taken ou t in the period follow ing that era represent structures based on these landm arks. A s contrasted to this war, during W orld W ar I the index o f invention rose; a great part of invention was based on the prim ary facts th at had been uncovered.

H ow ever, the skein m ust som e da y run out, and since 1930 the loom s o f invention have been slowing. Is this due to the failure o f the m odern business system to support, to the extent necessary, investigations in to the unknown?

E xcep t for a brief period following 1935, the curve o f invention has been dow nw ard. I t is highly possible that the cause for the decrease in invention during this period is n ot so much the loss of willing inventors to the grim busi­

ness o f war as it is the lack o f basic scientific principles, adaptable b y the ingenious mind o f the inventor in to ^a m achine or process.

In applications filed, we are on a level with the years at the beginning o f the century. T h e sad fact is that it is to o late for anything to be done in tim e for the war now going on. Either the principles are there or they are n ot.

A s K ettering says, if you wait until it is needed, it is too late to start research.

T h e chem ical industry has always supported basic re­

search, for o f all industries it understands best the slim bu t real conn ection betw een a scientist delving in to the a b ­ stract and the plant that adds to m an’s com forts.

R ing in the N ew . In one o f the large plants visited recently, we were introduced to a novel schem e which guaranteed new luncheon partners every da y for the labo­

ratory and plant personnel w ho ate in the com pa n y restau­

rant. W hen the lunchroom was originally opened, it becam e apparent to the m anagem ent that certain static groups would in evitab ly fo r m ; being believers in the prin­

ciple of free interchange of inform ation between the staff, they sought a w ay to enable new associates to m eet the executives and older help, and also a w ay to make it im ­ possible for cliques to function in their innocent b u t naturally exclusive manner.

Each man is given an individually n um bered 'n ap k in ring. These rings are placed at a different table each day, and the ring, n ot th e man, determ ines where the individual is to sit. A t the end of the meal, the rings are turned into a com m on pool from which th ey are reassigned each day.

In closing, we must note that the napkin ring functions n ot at all as a napkin holder. (Continued on page IS)

8 10

I. & E. C.

Reports on the Chemical World

Today

i c a n a m i o i

I. & E. C.

Reports on the Chemical World

Today

C c O - M U f U O i

Cotton’ s U ncertain Future. P olitico-econ om ists and legislators continue to stress the necessity of maintaining cotton prices at parity, or in relation to prewar parity, and accord on ly secondary or minor attention to increasing c o tto n ’ s industrial outlets. Thus the U. S. D epartm ent o f Agriculture poin ts ou t that*w ith on ly a little decline in prospect for parity, a favorable incom e situation will pre­

vail next season for this m ajor crop unless production falls greatly. Y e t it is adm itted at the same tim e that cotton is headed for livelier com petition in foreign countries, both from synthetic fibers and from foreign cotton .

Long ago cotton lost its position as prim e raw material for rayon manufacture, which can be ascribed in n o small measure to the lower cost for w ood pulp, and there are n o indications th at it will displace pulp for this purpose in the future. Balanced against this, the chem ist in the textile and chem ical industries has succeeded to an extent in bettering the position o f cotton as a textile material.

Intensive studies o f both cotton fibers and fabrics have con ­ siderably enhanced its value in wearing apparel, in house­

hold, utility, and m ilitary goods. C otton fabrics have been rendered resistant to flame, water, and mildew. In recent years cotton fiber has been the o b je ct of special study so that advantage can be taken o f its characteristics in blend­

ing with other fibers.

Techn ology, in other words, is the m ajor factor in the future of this great Am erican crop in the opinion of Claudius T . M urchison, president o f the C otton -T extile Institute, who sums up the case for c o tto n ’s position as a textile material with this statem ent: “ New things cannot be made w ithout research or experiment, and new things cannot be sold w ithout merchandising and prom otion .”

W ith ou t even m entioning the factor o f price or crop return which is given so much emphasis b y c o tto n ’s professional and professed friends, M urchison tells us that these tw o efforts— research and sales prom otion — make for a great volum e o f production and consum ption. W ith ou t them there can be n o expansion in em ploym ent and purchasing power.

Unlike m any other farm crops, the production and con ­ sum ption o f co tton in this cou n try have lost ground during the war. T h e D epartm ent of Agriculture shows th at a dom estic cotton su pply o f som e 22.5 million running bales is indicated for 1944-45, and that of this qu an tity about 10.6 million bales represent carry-over at the beginning o f the season, so that only 11.66 million bales are actually new production. T h e supply is 0.5 million bales greater than last season b u t smaller than any previous season’s supply since 1936-37. T h e im portant poin t is that cotton con ­ sum ption in the United States has declined constantly since the annual peak o f alm ost 12 m illion bales was estab­

lished in 1942. Last season it fell below 10 million. For 1944-45 the D epartm ent expects th at co tton consum ption will show a decline.

While cotton uses have been’ declining, the war has stimu­

lated new technical developm en t and research. H eading these are new finishes which im part properties to cotton goods not heretofore available to the (Continued on page

14

consumer: economies in staple mixtures of the fibers, ad­

vances in the treatment of cotton fibers to prevent slippage, and research which aims at providing yarn of greater stretch.

Current trends in packaging, due to wartim e labor shortages, m ay also fav or the use of more cotton . Au­

thorities in that field find that supersize packages are becom ing obsolete, and th at certain consum ers have dropped the h eavy bag constructions o f ju te for smaller ones of other materials. C otton , burlap, and paper can be used interchangeably, we learn from H . P. Claussen, head o f Bem is Bag C om pan y’s cotton departm ent, in the packaging o f m any com m odities such as sugar, feed, flour, and fertilizers.

From these developm ents we obtain an idea of what is meant b y the contention that tech nology is the m ajor factor in the future of Am erican cotto n . W hatever merits are contained in price and loan arrangem ents and in such measures as the Surplus D isposal Bill, which would perm it the sale of the Am erican p rodu ct abroad at com petitive world prices, they will n ot increase the markets for and the consum ption of cotton over the long term . H ere is where scientific research and developm ent will perform the big­

gest job and supply lasting instead of temporary benefits.

R esearch and S u rv iv e. The recent address o f Carl Rishell, director of research of American Forest Products Indus­

tries, on “ Research, the Builder o f M arkets” , delivered be­

fore the conference on New Developments in W ood Products, at the College of Forestry, Syracuse University, should be read by those in managerial positions. His speech was a poignant exposé and indictment of an industry which, for many years, continued a laissez-faire policy and failed to appreciate that, to survive, an industry must employ research to the fullest extent.

Taking wood office desks as a simple example, the speaker showed what competition can and will do when research is not properly employed. In 1918 almost 100% of the office desks manufactured were of wood construction; twenty years later 50 % were made of wood. Less than thirty years ago practically all filing cases were made o f wood, but during the last peacetime year, a mere 7 % were wooden.

Fortunately the very abundance o f our forests has intrigued the chemist and has sufficiently aroused his curiosity to stimu­

late research on an extensive scale. Partially because other materials are scarce during the war and largely because the chemist thinks in terms of fabrication of molecules, the future outlook for wood seems brighter. In the words of the speaker, the lumber industry should emulate the meat packers and their slogan “ save everything except the squeal” . Indeed, he urged lumber men to go the meat packers one better by saving the “ bark” .

The chemist in developing new adhesives has opened the door to an entirely new approach for the proper utilization of wood. Similarly, the work of D u Pont and Forest Products Laboratory in developing methods o f treating lumber to pre­

vent warping assures the retention o f many of the present markets for wood. The coatings chemist is making notable contributions to the wood industry (Continued on page 81)

12 14

I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y 53

o l e c u l a r structure of fuel and engine knock are interre­

lated, and Charles F. Kettering, vice president and research head of General Motors Corporation, shows how closely this relation functions in his article on performance of internal com­

bustion engines. Then, too, he tells the first authoritative story of triptane, powerful aviation fuel first produced during this war in large quantities by General Motors.

Meeting specifications for aviation fuel is a matter of skillful blending of gasolines which have varying amounts of the proper­

ties desired in the finished product. Lukofsky, of Eastern States Petroleum Company, reduces the selection and quantity of each gasoline mixed into the blend to a mathematical relation. He states that, although the application is demonstrated on aviation gasoline, the principles underlying the method are general and may be applied to the blending of other liquid components.

Reported in this issue by A. W. Francis, Socony-Vacuum Oil Company, are the critical solution temperatures for sixty organic solvents (in this case, solvents are nonhydrocarbons). With each solvent is. one or several of thirty-five hydrocarbons and three naphthenes. This contribution shows the importance of the close relation of C.S.T. and miscibility; and Francis derives a smooth function between C.S.T. and the total number of paraf- finic carbon atoms in the side chain of the hydrocarbons.

Ammonium nitrate from a number of ordnance plants first became available as fertilizer in the spring of 1943. The troubles resulting have caused many studies to be made concerning the use of this material. The difficulties and the answers worked out are the subjects of a paper by four chemists in the U. S. Department of Agriculture. There we may learn about granular nitrate, cak­

ing, hygroscopicity, water repellence, coating agents, and storage tests. The conclusions are that this fertilizer, with certain precau­

tions, may be produced and stored in a form that is entirely satis­

factory for application directly to the soil.

Modern cracking practices will increase the supply of petroleum coke in the postwar according to Berry and Edgeworth-John- stone, because the fractions used by the modern crackers are distillates and not residues as was the case in thermal cracking.

From this premise the authors proceed to study the formation of petroleum coke, finding that there are four stages of formation

— pitch, semipitch, asphaltic coke, and carboid coke.

Grain shortages have caused distillers to investigate many sources of alcohol substitutes, and the Seagram organization now publishes the results and yields obtained from experiments with dehydrated sweet potatoes. This food was chosen because it is high in carbohydrates and, on southern farms, attains high pro­

ductivity. Plant trials show that from 4.77 to 5.44 gallons of alcohol are possible, depending on the type of sweet potato used.

Not only are potatoes practicable as a substitute, but the authors state that molasses at 6 cents may have real competition in the postwar from several varieties of potato. A producer may expect almost three times the financial reward from handling sweet potatoes for distillation that is now realized from corn.

Mellon Institute contributes an article on the effect of inert pigments on the antifouling action of paints. The point in ques­

tion is whether an ideal antifouling paint should protect primarily

by exfoliation or chalking, or whether it should act as a source of marine toxic compounds. The results answer only part of the question, but merely putting in pigment is no way to discourage marine life from congregating on a ship’s bottom.

There are articles on drying behavior of enamels baked in infrared radiant beat and in convection ovens; something on the development of tannin from western hemlock bark now that the blight is depleting our source of chestnut tannin; there is a new gel that can be made by reacting wheat gluten with chlorosulfonic acid; and along with much more, there is an article on the use of waste asparagus butts.

N ext M onth

N

Next month we have a symposium on the saccharification of cel­

lulose— or sugar from wood. Covered will be the history of the Scholler process in the United States and the story of the War Production Board’s pilot-plant trials that led to the recommenda­

tion that a commercial plant be built. We will learn that the commercial idea of making sugar from wood did not first appear in Germany but in the United States some thirty years ago.

Throughout the first World War two plants were successfully- operated in the South, and the operation continued into the post­

war period (we have had those before too ). Agricultural residues may be saccharized in a continuous manner, with a neat explana­

tion of a technique of obtaining xylose from the pentosans present thrown in to boot. Like all chemical processes, there are by­

products that stem from the operation, and next month we tell more about them.

Ammonium nitrate is now a well known fertilizer, but investi­

gations into its reactions continue, even though its familiarity as a chemical would lead one to assume that everything about it is already known. This time it is a study into the causes of fires started when the nitrates react upon the organic materials usually present in commercial materials. The conclusions are a good argument for better neutralization of fertilizers.

Fatigue failure of GR-S is due for a bit of spotlighting next month. This particular contribution has received A1 priorities from the reviewers, who like the familiar way the investigations into cure effect, temperature effects, and oxygen concentrations were handled.

An intelligent poking into the corrosion of metals by organic acids in hydrocarbon solutions, brings out that, for corrosion to take place under those conditions, formation of a metal oxide intermediate is necessary. The metal oxide may be formed by dissolved oxygen or organic peroxides, but if you are bothered by slow corrosion, the conclusion to draw is that an oxide “ snuck” in somehow. And that is as we see it.

f T S . / £ *

ho

TH OMAS MIDGLEY, JR.

B y C H A R L E S F. K E T T E R I N G

" T ’v e

finished the hydrometer job, Boss, what do you want me to do next?” That JL simple question and the answer were the unintentional beginning o f a great adventure in the life o f a most versatile scientist. The young man who asked the question was Thomas Midgley, Jr., a graduate o f Cornell in mechanical engineering.

He had become a .member o f the Delco-Light Engineering Department in 1916, and his first job had been to finish up a built-in hydrometer for indicating the degree o f charge in the storage battery o f a Delco farm lighting set. The answer to the question and the next job came about this way. Ever since we had put the self-starter on auto­

mobiles, engineers had blamed the engine knock on the battery ignition which went with the starter. Some work had been done on this subject but the starter business had grown so rapidly that the instruments and data had been put in a box and stored in a coat closet in my office at the Delco self-starter plant.

W hen Midge asked me the question as to what to do next, we sat down and talked about the knock in engines and why an exact knowledge o f the cause was so important. " I f you want to try this job ,” I suggested, "get the box from my office at the Delco starter plant and put the indicator on a Delco-Light engine and see what you can find out.”

In this job Midge showed his most important characteristics as a research engineer— versatility and action. The old Dobbie-Mclnnes manograph was not good enough to do exactly what was required. It did show, however, that the knock did not come from preignition as was the common belief, but that it was caused by a violent pressure rise a fter ignition from the spark plug. So Midge said, "L et’s make a better indicator.” Never did he say "This doesn’ t work,” but always, "H ow can we overcome the difficulty and move ahead?”

The new knowledge gained now brought up the question, "W h y does the unusual pressure rise occur after ignition and how can it be stopped?” One Saturday after lunch, we talked over the problem and thought that maybe if the fuel were colored red it would absorb more radiant heat and evaporate faster. This theory came about because we both knew that the leaves o f the trailing arbutus are red on the back and that they grow and bloom under the snow. So Midge got from Fred Chase some elemental iodine as a quickly available dye to color the fuel red. Much to our astonish­

ment, it reduced the knock. "W as it the color or a property o f iodine?” That was the next question.

Red aniline dyes were tried with negative results. But colorless ethyl iodide stopped the knock just as iodine had done. So the antiknock compound was the

(A TriLu

iodine itself and not the color. The unknown field now was getting larger and more exciting. Should we get a chemist to help, or should it be a physicist? Engineer Midgley looking at this new field said, "N o one knows anything about this problem. W e must outline a whole series o f experiments and find out if it is physics or chemistry.”

He unknowingly started with this outline to become both a physicist and a chemist, unhampered by the traditions o f either. The laboratory then was on the second floor o f a tobacco warehouse and not very well equipped, but this made no difference to Midge.

The first W orld War was now absorbing our attention, and Midge began to work with the Bureau o f Mines to produce a better aviation fuel. The knock was limiting the power o f the new Liberty engine. Reports had been current that the Germans were using cyclohexane as a fuel. So now Midgley became a physical chemist and started to hydrogenate benzene, but with all the difficulties that had been predicted.

Midge was a tireless worker and long hours were common. So, after overcoming several obstacles, one o f which was the destructive effect o f sulfur on the catalyst, he solved the problem o f hydrogenating benzene. Many barrels o f this fuel, a mixture o f 70 per cent cyclohexane and 30 per cent benzene, were made, and it was perhaps the first synthetic high-octane fuel produced. Out of this work and the investigation o f other compounds which had preceded it came the realization that the molecular structure o f a fuel is more important than its physical properties.

About this same time, one o f our laboratories was given the job o f developing the aerial torpedo now called the Buzz Bomb. Midge was assigned the control system.

This work proved quite successful.

After the war we seriously started again the hunt for antiknock compounds.

Although neither the discovery of iodine as an antiknock agent nor the synthesis o f an improved fuel from hydrogenating benzene was put to practical use, they did have an important effect. They changed the versatile Midgley’ s postwar interest and activity from engineering to chemistry, and he soon became one o f the best informed and, as the record shows, one o f the most creative chemists.

Out o f his years o f research in chemistry, Midgley made four outstanding con­

tributions. He discovered the chemical antiknock agents, the principal one o f which, tetraethyllead, is adding so much to the performance and efficiency o f gasoline engines in the air and on the ground. As bromine was a necessary complement to lead for use in gasoline, he conceived the possibility o f extracting bromine from sea water, although it is present there in concentration so extremely minute as to be measured in parts per million. He and his associates demonstrated that it is practical to get bromine out o f the ocean, from which it now is being extracted in huge amounts.

W ith conspicuous courage and imagination, he utilized fluorine in making an alto­

gether new series o f refrigerating gases which are nonflammable and nontoxic so that, now in war time, their biggest use is not for refrigeration at all, but for dis­

persing insect repellents in the atmosphere o f living quarters. He conducted intensive researches on rubber which extended the knowledge o f the chemistry o f vulcanization and o f the composition o f natural and synthetic rubbers, so vital today.

The versatility o f Thomas Midgley, Jr., is further shown by the scope o f his many other accomplishments. He investigated engine flames by visual observation through a window, by spectrographic studies, and by measurements o f radiation.

He developed the Midgley Optical Gas Engine Indicator, and the extensively used bouncing-pin indicator. He had a paramount part in organizing the Centennial Cele­

bration o f the American Patent System in 1936, and also the celebration o f the

T H O M A S M I D G L E Y , J R .

1 8 8 9 - 1 9 4 4

United States Patent Law Sesquicentennial in 1940. He was a member o f the National Inventors Council, and head o f one branch o f chemical endeavor for the National Defense Research Committee. He made extensive contributions to the chemical profession and to the American Chemical Society, having served as a director of the Society since 1930, as Chairman o f the Board o f Directors since 1934, and as president in 1944. He contributed about forty papers to the journals o f the Society, and ten or more to the journals o f other societies, most o f which were descriptive o f his several researches.

For his many contributions Midge was fortunate and grateful to have received during his lifetime an unusual measure o f the recognition and honors from his com ­ peers which his accomplishments so well merited. He was awarded the Nichols Medal for 1922 by the New York Section o f the American Chemical Society, the Longstreth Medal o f the Franklin Institute in 1925, the Perkin Medal o f the Society o f Chemical Industry in 1937, the Priestley Medal o f the American Chemical Society in 1941, and the Willard Gibbs Medal of the Chicago Section o f the American Chemical Society in 1942. In 1942 also he was elected an honorary member o f the National Academy o f Sciences. He received, further, the honorary degree o f Doctor o f Science from the College o f W ooster in 1936 and from the Ohio State University in 1944.

Midge’s accomplishments in industrial research demonstrate that he had unusual talents in all three o f its important phases: first, in primary investigation or invention;

second, in development or conversion to the stage of practical usefulness; and, third, in selling or in educating management and the public up to the new thing. The tetraethyllead development in particular was an endeavor which required, and in which he demonstrated to a marked degree, his abilities in all three o f these phases.

Something o f Midge’ s ability in salesmanship or showmanship has been seen by those who have heard him, and seen him, present papers at meetings o f the Society.

At Pittsburgh in 1922, for instance, he demonstrated engine knock and its removal on the stage o f Carnegie Music Hall both in a glass tube and in an engine; and at Atlanta in 1930 he demonstrated both the nontoxic and the nonflammable properties o f freon in one breath, so to speak, by breathing in some o f its vapor and softly exhaling it to extinguish a burning candle.

Midgley liked people of every class and profession. Out o f his many activities and associations, he made many friends, and he liked nothing better than to be a host to them. To me personally Midge has been, during all these years, like a son or a brother. And he was held in the highest regard by his associates everywhere.

W hen, at his funeral, the minister read the familiar verse, "W e brought nothing

into this world, and it is certain we can carry nothing out,” it struck me that in

this case .it would have seemed so appropriate to have added, "bu t we can leave a lot

behind for the good o f the world.” For what he left behind is the world’s great heritage

from Midgley’s creative life.

INDUSTRIAL ^{a n d} ENGIN EERING CHEMISTRY

P U B L I S H E

Science T

phone conversation with him, fifteen of which were given over to a discussion of the future development of our publications and the balance to plans for publicizing the slogan “ Science Is Power” .

“ Be sure to point out editorially” , said D r. M idgley,

“ that France fell in forty days before the German on­

slaught partially, if not largely, because it failed to ap­

preciate that science is power, because it continued to believe and trust in Napoleon’s outdated and outmoded philosophy that God is on the side of the army with the m ost guns, because it failed to be technologically strong to m eet any emergency” .

The bravery, the willingness of American youth to die on the field of battle in defense of their homes and their ideals have been dramatically demonstrated again and again, but bravery and self-sacrifice do not neces­

sarily mean victory. W e are winning this war because we are technologically superior to our enemies.

M omentarily we are witnessing rather belated ac­

knowledgment of this fact by m any prominent and in­

fluential leaders in this country, but lip service to the principle that science is power will not be sufficient to guarantee the future safety of America. Mere words must be translated into action— immediate action.

W e m ust not let politicians write and interpret se­

lective service acts that disregard the historical fact that science is power.

W e m ust work for the early release of the 15,000 chemists and chemical engineers, now serving in the Armed Forces, who are not utilizing their technical skills. These men, if returned to research and produc­

tion, could provide thousands of new jobs for return­

ing veterans.

W e must not permit our technical colleges and uni­

versities to continue to be denuded of students, for they are the guarantee that America in the future will con­

tinue to be technologically strong. W e m ust strive in­

cessantly for larger enrollments of students in our tech-

BY T H E A M E R I C A N C H E M I C A L S O C I E T Y

W A L T E R J. M U R P H Y , E D I T O R

Is Power

nical courses and higher quality of graduates, improved monetary rewards for teachers and graduates alike, so that the very best brains of America will be attracted to and remain in scientific pursuits.

W e m ust continue and enlarge upon our present ef­

forts to publicize properly the importance of science so that men and women with technical training are given a voice in the solution of political, social, and economic problems commensurate, not with numbers, but with the contributions of technologists to the improvement of the lot of mankind.

W e must see to it that American industry is given every legitimate encouragement; that industry and our Armed Forces cooperate, especially in the field of research. W e must ask that adequate provision be made for research in fields not of particular commercial value but of special importance to our national safety.

W e must insist that American statesmen and politi­

cians in international conferences and in writing the peace never forget that science is power and that the world of tomorrow requires full recognition of this fact.

Our allies and enemies alike have had a deep appreci­

ation of the value of technologists and, even in wartime, are strengthening these forces in quality and numbers.

As your Editor finished what proved to be his last conversation with Thom as M idgley, he paused a few minutes to reflect on the thought: W h a t would M idgley be m ost noted for twenty-five or fifty years hence?

W ou ld it be for his strictly scientific discoveries in the fields of motor fuel, refrigeration, synthetic rubber, ex­

traction of bromine from sea water, or would it be for his foresight and courage in calling America’s attention to the indisputable fact that to remain America we m ust never forget, even for a single instant, that “ Sci­

ence Is Power” .

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1078 I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y Vol. 36, No. 12

E c o n o m ic a n d P ro fess io n al S ta tu s

T

sional Chemical Workers in War and Peace” , prepared by the author o f the report, Andrew Fraser, Jr., and highlight­

ing the more significant facts disclosed through questionnaires returned b y 70 per cent of the ^So c i e t y’s American m em ­ bership. The survey, conducted and prepared by this widely known statistician and economist, now with the War Departm ent and formerly with the Bureau o f Labor Statistics, U. S. Departm ent of Labor, deals with the years 1941-1943;

it was carried on as one of the activities of the So c i e t y's

Com mittee on Professional and Econom ic Status. The com ­ plete report, other than the Appendixes, was published seri­

ally in Chemical and Engineering News during the present year, and is now available in reprint form from the M ack Printing Com pany, Easton, Pa., at a very nominal sum.

The survey, we believe, is by far the most comprehensive study on matters pertaining to the professional and econom ic status of professional workers ever undertaken by any pro­

fessional society. Adm ittedly, the contents of the report must be studied with great care and attention to obtain the full significance o f its many facets; it is not light reading, neither is it a scientific dissertation on some phase o f research in the field o f organic chemistry. The summary of the high­

lights of the report is published in Chemical and Engineer­

ing News for those who do not have the time or inclination to study the survey in complete detail.

The summary points out that 42.5 per cent o f the chemists who are members hold Ph.D . degrees, 23,8 per cent are mas­

ters, and 29.6 per cent have bachelor degrees. Of the chemical engineers, however, only 9.7 are P h .D .’s, 26.2 per cent are masters, and, as m any as 58.9 per cent are bachelors.

Members appear to have confidence in the prospects for postwar employment, since 41.6 per cent indicated expected improved status after V -day, 50.8 per cent reported that they expected “ no change” , and only 6.7 per cent felt that their prospects were likely to be worse after the war. Approxi­

mately 85 per cent viewed their em ploym ent as “ per­

manent” , as against 15 per cent who described their posi­

tions as “ tem porary” .

Approximately 68 per cent are employed by private enter­

prises; some 17 per cent are in the category of public em­

ployment. T w o per cent of those reporting earned more than §19,000 a year, while 1 per cent earned less than §1,200.

The spread in earnings at all experience levels is substantial and becomes accentuated with increased experience. It is obvious that no single figure of earnings adequately typifies the earning capacity of the membership, and certainly tak­

ing a simple average or arithmetic means and stating that this figure is the average income for chemists and chemical engi­

neers, would be entirely misleading.

Only a very small percentage o f the membership derives in­

com e from fees and bonuses, but substantial increases in earnings (base pay) were reported b y members at virtually all experience levels over the period 1941-1943, and particu­

larly is this true o f new entrants into the profession. The earnings reported in 1943, by new entrants were from 30 to 50 per cent greater than those reported by new entrants to the profession in 1941. Overtime payments came to a large segment of the membership in 1943, and again this was

especially true of the younger members. A gradual decline in difference between base and base plus overtime rates was indicated with advancing years of experience.

The report itself and the summary are strictly factual.

Whether chemists and chemical engineers or the members of the Am e r i c a n Ch e m i c a l So c i e t y compare favorably in re­

gard to earnings with other professions, especially lawyers, doctors, and engineers, is impossible to determine, for no comparable data for these professions are in existence which would make such studies possible. The same holds true for any comparison with the skilled trades.

IVe know personally of several instances where those in supervisory positions have employed the data in the report to point out effectively to management obvious income in­

equalities of those whose work they direct. In nearly all instances where this has been done, increases have been made. Employers and those who supervise, such as direc­

tors of research, plant managers, etc., have a distinct duty to check immediately these data and to attem pt to correct income situations of professional employees which are ob­

viously ou t o f line. Where permission must be sought from government agencies for such increases, the report will provide valuable substantiating statistical data.

P u b lis h e d by R e q u e s t

M

So c i e t y at the recent Third National Chemical E xpo­

sition, sponsored by the Chicago Section, requested copies o f a definition of C H E M IS T R Y which was given in one of the panels o f our display. W e are delighted to reproduce it on our editorial page.

Chemistry is a powerful tool man lias for the creation of good.

Its power is felt in the development of new industries, and in the rejuvenation of the old. National defense and the attack carried to our enemies is the product of chemistry, just as surely as the peaceful commerce of the future. Chemistry is a factory meas­

ured in acres or the boundaries of the atom measured in millimi­

crons. Chemistry is the means by which a great nation has been built on the enterprise of mighty men; it is the means by which the life of a little child is saved from grasping death by a chemical drug.

In peace, as well as in war, chemistry and chemicals are the life blood of all industry. Not a plane flies, not a tank moves, not a gun fires without the benefits of chemical research and the prod­

ucts of chemical plants. Armies and civilians are clothed, fed, housed, protected, and their physical well-being and safety guarded by chemical means developed by these officers of the Production Army. Chemistry is the servant of man— it must never be permitted to become man’s master. Chemistry, as all science, is power— the power to defend attacks on democratic ideals and the foundations of modern civilization; the power to create new jobs for millions in the postwar era.

The members of the Am e r i c a n Ch e m i c a l So c i e t y, the chem­

ists, and chemical engineers of this country and our Allies, gladly dedicate themselves to the momentous task not only of restoring a badly shattered world, but to the sustained improvement of the lot of all mankind.

T o visualize the contributions of American chemistry to the winning of the war and the part that chemical discoveries will play in “ The World of Tomorrow” , a few achievements are pre­

sented here so that the public may better appreciate the work of chemists and chemical engineers and their importance to the ad­

vancement of civilization.

Our chemical accomplishments in World War II have been produced by a small band of 80,000 chemists and chemical en­

gineers. Truly we may say of these men and women as did Win­

ston Churchill of the members of the R.A.F., “ Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.”

“Ihe £ U e e t t h e Moleculan. a/ fyuell

ON THE POWER AND EFFICIENCY OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

A n A d d / ic iy i P R e l e n t e d h e jjO A c t h e Q e n e S ia l M e e t i n g a t t h e 1 0 8 t h M e e t i n g o j t h e A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y , i n f t e i a y v i h , A t. y .

BY CHARLES F. KETTERING

V i c e P n - e l i d e n t o j Q e n e A c d M o t o A i . C o A y x o A a tio n a n d M e m h e s i o j t h e A d a U o A y P e a s i d o j P n d n i t A i a l a n d S n y i n e e A i n y G h e m i i t A y

II G e n e ra l M o to rs Research Labora torie s have al­

w ays b een engaged in research on inte rnal com bus­

tio n engine fuels from the sta n d p o in t o f engine b u ild e rs. The o b je c tiv e has been to find o u t w h a t can be d o n e a b o u t the chemistry o f com bustion o f the fuel in the e n gine to im prove the p o w e r and e ffic ie n c y o f the c o m b in a tio n , fue l plus engine.

This research ea rly sh o w e d that lim itatio ns are im­

posed on the fu e l-p lu s-e n g in e co m binatio n b y the d e structive com bustion d istu rban ce ca lle d " k n o c k " . A lth o u g h b o th fue l and e n gine are in v o lv e d , the p o w e r and e ffic ie n c y o f any one design o f engine are d e p e n d e n t up on the exte nt to w h ic h the fuel used is free from knock. The la tte r, in turn, is in ­ fluenced b y the a d d itio n o f materials such as te tra ­ e th ylle ad to the fuel and, s till more im p o rtan tly, by even s lig h t changes in the m o le cular structure o f the fuel itse lf, o r the w a y in w h ic h even the same num ber o f atoms are lin k e d to g e th e r in space to form m olecules. Such studies o f m o le cular structure have s h o w n that lo n g th in m olecules knock b a d ly and sho rt com pact ones o f the same w e ig h t, o n ly a little , and that the diffe re n c e s b e tw e e n them may amount to several fo ld changes in the p o te n tia l p o w e r o u t­

p u t o f an e n gine using them. In this research a com pound ca lle d " t r ip t a n e " ( 2 , 2 ,3 -trim e th ylb u ta n e ) w as fou nd to be o n e o f the best fuels. Recently 9 9 % p u re trip ta n e has been made in tank car qu antities. S u ffic ie n t qu a n titie s have been o b ta in e d in a n e w p ilo tp la n tto p e r m ite x te n s iv e testing, even in airplanes. The gains po ssib le w ith trip ta n e , e sp e cia lly w h e n te tra e th y lle a d is a d ded, d e pend upon the p a rtic u la r engine and c o n d itio n s o f o p e ra ­ tio n , and have am ounted to as much as fo u r times the p o w e r and a q u a rte r less fuel than is o b ta in e d w ith present 1 0 0 -o c ta n e gasoline. The o b je c tiv e o f this research is to find the best co m b in a tio n o f engine and fue l to give the greatest o u tp u t o f useful w o rk o r p o w e r p e r total d o lla r, irre sp e ctiv e o f w h a t form the e n g in e -fu e l co m b in a tio n may take. The results s h o w that the re is s till a very large field fo r im prove­

ment, b o th In the fuels themselves and in the de sig n­

ing o f engines to use such fuels to best advantage.

1079