The down under water experience

The Down Under water experience

Introduction

I’ll start this article with the warmest July month ever recorded in the Netherlands. At the end of July I read on my Dutch internet news source (see Website 1) that in the month of July the water consump-tion in the Netherlands was 1,5 times the normal consumption in July as result of the heat stroke. &RQVXPSWLRQ¿JXUHVRIVHYHUDOZDWHUFRPSDQLHV ZHUHJLYHQ$WWKHERWWRPRIWKLVQHZVLWHPWKHIRO-ORZLQJVHQWHQFHFDXJKWP\DWWHQWLRQ³:DWHUQHWKHW bedrijf dat drinkwater levert aan Amsterdam kon het GDJYHUEUXLNYRRUGHPDDQGMXOLQLHWDDQOHYHUHQ´RU LQ(QJOLVK³:DWHUQHWWKHXWLOLW\VXSSO\LQJZDWHUWR the city of Amsterdam, was not able to produce the GDLO\FRQVXPSWLRQLQWKHPRQWKRI-XO\´,Q$XVWUDOLD it is unthinkable that a water utility is not able to SURGXFHXSWRGDWH¿JXUHVRQZDWHUFRQVXPSWLRQ daily rainfall and capacity of the reservoirs. Websites of Australian utilities are updated daily with these ¿JXUHV7KHFRQVXPHUVYLVLWWKHVHZHEVLWHVVHH Websites 2, 3, 4, 5) frequently to see what the level RIZDWHUUHVWULFWLRQVLVDQGWR¿QGRXWWKHDOORFDWHG GD\VIRUVSULQNOLQJWKHLUJDUGHQWKDWZHHN Furthermore, every day at the end of the news report on television in Sydney and in all local news papers overviews are presented of the water consumption of the different suburban areas, dam capacities, UDLQIDOO¿JXUHVFXUUHQWO\DQGLQWKHODVW\HDUV and so on.

Water consumption

$XVWUDOLD LV D ODUJH FRXQWU\ ZLWK DQ XQLTXH ZDWHU resources situation. Australia is a continent of H[WUHPHVRIJHRJUDSK\FOLPDWHSRSXODWLRQGLVWUL-bution and water resources. It is the driest inhabited

FRQWLQHQWRQ(DUWKZLWKKLJKO\YDULDEOHUDLQIDOOSDW-WHUQV7KLV YDULDELOLW\ PHDQV WKDW$XVWUDOLDQ FRP-munities frequently face water supply and water quality problems.

Only 12 percent of the annual rainfall over Australia results in runoff into streams and rivers or soaks into DQGLVUHWDLQHGLQWKHJURXQG7KHUHVWLVUHWXUQHG to the atmosphere directly by evaporation or from YHJHWDWLRQWKURXJKWKHSURFHVVRIWUDQVSLUDWLRQ7KLV UHVXOWVLQ$XVWUDOLDKDYLQJRQO\RQHSHUFHQWRIWKH ZDWHUFDUULHGE\WKHZRUOG¶VULYHUVGHVSLWHKDYLQJ ¿YHSHUFHQWRIWKHZRUOG¶VODQGDUHD7KHORQJWHUP

Figure 2 - Figures on water levels in reservoirs close to Melbourne

When I arrived in September 2005 in Australia I expected a sunny hot country, where everyone is dressed in shorts DQGZDONLQJRQWKRQJV7KLVODVWH[SHFWDWLRQVDERXWWKH$XVWUDOLDQ³IDVKLRQ´ZDVWUXHKRZHYHUWKHVSULQJRI ZDVYHU\ZHWZLWKHYHQVRPHÀRRGLQJVLQWKH$GHODLGHDUHD7KLVKDGQRWKDSSHQHGLQWKHODVW\HDUV7KH\HDU 2006 on the other hand was dry. I cannot remember any substantial rainfall since April 2006. In the month of October RQO\PPRISUHFLSLWDWLRQZDVUHFRUGHGFRPSDUHGWRDQRUPDO\HDUO\DYHUDJHRIPP$OVRZKHQGULYLQJ WKURXJKWKHFRXQWU\LWZDVREYLRXVWKDWWKHODQGZDVGU\7KHJUDVVLVHYHU\ZKHUH\HOORZFRORXUHGDQGWKHQXPEHU RIEXVK¿UHVZDVDOUHDG\KLJKLQ2FWREHU7KH¿UHVHDVRQHYHQVWDUWHGPRQWKHDUOLHUWKDQQRUPDOEHFDXVHRI WKHVHYHU\GU\FRQGLWLRQV,P\VHOIGLGQ¶WH[SHULHQFHWKDWWKHUHZDVDGURXJKW:DWHUZDVDOZD\VUXQQLQJIURPWKH WDS(YHQZKHQWKHUHVWULFWLRQVFDPHLQWRSODFHLQ2FWREHUWKHUHZDVDOZD\VVXI¿FLHQWZDWHU

Figure 1 - Example of website of Australian water utility with on top of the site information about yesterday’s reservoir levels, consumption and rainfall and street numbers indicating who is allowed to water the garden.

Figure 3 - The week’s top 10 Australian issues, October 21-27 (Source Media Monitor)

Number of media mentions

Obesity; 2993 Tri-nations; 3109

Iraq withdrawal; 4450 Spring Racing Carnival; 4562

Media Laws; 5040 North Korea nuclear test;

5366

PBL sells media assets; 7163 A-League; 7754

Drought and climate change; 16326

ICC Champions Trophy; 7208

DYHUDJHDQQXDOUDLQIDOORYHU$XVWUDOLDLVHVWLPDWHG to be 455 millimetres. However, this hides the very variable rainfall pattern across the continent as LQGLFDWHGLQ¿JXUH

%HVLGHVODUJHÀXFWXDWLRQVLQUDLQIDOORYHUWKHFRXQWU\ DOVRODUJHYDULDWLRQVLQUDLQIDOORYHUWKH\HDUVH[LVW DVDUHVXOWRIFOLPDWRORJLFDOZHDWKHUSKHQRPHQDOLNH el Niño and la Niña. In recent years the rainfall has EHHQFRQVLGHUDEO\ORZHUWKDQWKHDYHUDJHYDOXHVDV LQGLFDWHGLQ¿JXUHDQGPDQ\UHJLRQVLQ$XVWUDOLD DUHGHDOLQJZLWKDVHYHUHGURXJKW $XVWUDOLDLVFXUUHQWO\DQQRH[SHULHQFLQJWKH ZRUVWGURXJKWLQ\HDUV7KH\HDUO\UDLQIDOOLV KDOIWKHDYHUDJHUDLQIDOO$OOFLWLHVKDYHVWDUWHGZLWK ZDWHUUHVWULFWLRQVDQGVRPHFLWLHVHYHQDUHUXQQLQJ RXWRIZDWHULQWKHYHU\QHDUIXWXUH7KHZDWHUOHY-els in the reservoirs are low (see Websites 6, 7), some reservoirs are even under the critical level. Some rural communities in Victoria have run out RIZDWHUDQGWKHLQKDELWDQWVDUHJHWWLQJHYHU\WZR

ZHHNVZDWHUE\WUXFNVWKHVRFDOOHGZDWHUFDUWLQJ (see Website 8).

7KHLQÀRZLQWKH0XUUD\'DUOLQJEDVLQWKHODUJHVW catchment area in Australia, is record low. Since the water year started on July 1 only 10% of the aver-DJHLQÀRZKDVUHDFKHGWKH0XUUD\'DUOLQJEDVLQ Also the reservoir and river levels everywhere in the country are historical low. Even some reservoirs have become totally dry and the pictures in the newspaper and on the television of the low water levels in the river Murray are dramatic.

Water consumption

$XVWUDOLDQVDUHODUJHGRPHVWLFZDWHUFRQVXPHUV 2QDYHUDJHWKH\XVHOLWHUGULQNLQJZDWHUSHU person per day for domestic use (Water account $XVWUDOLD7KHSHRSOHLQ1RUWKHUQ 7HUULWRU\XVHPRVWZDWHUDOPRVWOSSSGZKLOHWKH people in New South Wales are moderate consum-ers with only 277 lpppd. It has to be mentioned that LQWKH1RUWKHUQ7HUULWRU\DQG7DVPDQLDWKHUHLVDQ abundance of water and no water restrictions are in place, while in all the other states water restrictions

Figure 4 - Average annual rainfall in Australia (Bureau of Meteorology, http://www.bom.gov. au/cgi-bin/climate/cgi_bin_scripts/annual-monthly-rainfall.cgi)

Figure 5 - Trend in annual total rainfall period ‘70- ‘05 (Bureau of Meteorology, http://www.bom.gov. au/cgi-bin/silo/reg/cli_chg/trendmaps.cgi)

Location NSW Vic. Qld SA WA $&7 Aust.

Bathroom 26 26 19 15 17 16 20 7RLOHW 23 19 12 13 11 14 15 Laundry 16 15 10 13 14 10 13 Kitchen 10 5 9 10 8 5 8 Outdoor 25 35 50 50 50 55 44 7RWDO 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

are in place. Most of the water is used outdoors for ZDWHULQJ WKH JDUGHQ ,Q QRUPDO \HDUV WKH JDUGHQ WDNHVDURXQGRIWKHFRQVXPSWLRQDOWKRXJKLQ KRWGU\VXPPHUVWKLV¿JXUHFDQEHDVKLJKRI in some parts of the country.

7KH DYHUDJH SULFH RI ZDWHU LV   SHU N/ IRU WKH¿UVWN/UDQJLQJIURPSHUN/IRUWKH ¿UVWN/LQ$GHODLGHDQG3HUWKWRSHUN/ LQ6\GQH\7KHFDSLWDOFLWLHVSULFHLVLQWKHXSSHU ERXQGDQGVRPHFLWLHVKDYHLQFOLQLQJEORFNWDULIIV (see table 2). As a result of the low price of water there is no incentive for Australians to limit their water consumption.

7DNLQJLQWRUHJDUGWKHVHORZFRVWRIZDWHULWLVQRW VWUDQJHWRXQGHUVWDQGZK\WKHUHLVDKXJHRSSR-VLWLRQ DJDLQVW H[SDQGLQJ WUHDWPHQW E\ WKH VWDWH JRYHUQPHQWV ,QFUHDVLQJ WKH WUHDWPHQW ZLOO UHVXOW LQ YHU\ ODUJH LQYHVWPHQW FRVWV DQG WKXV D ODUJH LQFUHDVHLQGULQNLQJZDWHUSULFH:LWKWKHORZFXUUHQW

FRVWDGRXEOLQJRIWKHSULFHFDQHDVLO\EHH[SHFWHG )XUWKHUPRUH WKH UHDOLVDWLRQ WLPH IRU EXLOGLQJ D GULQNLQJZDWHUSODQWLVPRVWSUREDEO\ORQJHUWKDQ WKHOLIHWLPHRIWKHVWDWHJRYHUQPHQW:DWHUUHODWHG SURMHFWVKDYHDOLIHVSDQORQJHUWKDQWKHOLIHVSDQ RIWKHDYHUDJHSROLWLFLDQ6RWKHVXFFHVVLYHJRYHUQ-PHQWZLOOKDYHWKHEHQH¿WVRILQYHVWPHQWVPDGHE\ WKHSUHYLRXVJRYHUQPHQW Water demand $WWKHWLPHRIZULWLQJRIWKLVDUWLFOHWKH$XVWUDOLDQ population just popped the 20.5 million inhabitants PDUNVHH:HEVLWH$VVXPPDULVHGLQ¿JXUH the Australian Bureau of Statistics projects that the SRSXODWLRQRI$XVWUDOLDZLOOLQFUHDVHE\¿YHPLOOLRQ more people to reach 25 million in 2032. Moreover, they estimate that the nature and rate of population JURZWKZLOOQRWEHXQLIRUP0RVWQRWDEO\WKHSRSX-ODWLRQRIWKH%ULVEDQH0RUHWRQUHJLRQLVSURMHFWHG :KHQ,VLJQHGP\UHQWDODJUHHPHQW,ZDVWROGWKDWWKH¿UVWN/LQ$XVWUDOLDWKH\XVHN/LQVWHDGRIP3_{) of water}

use would be paid by the land lord. I did a quick calculation, based on my Dutch water consumption of 125 lpppd, DQGFRQFOXGHGWKDWWKLVZDVDIDLUGHDO0\IDPLO\ZRXOGDWPD[LPXPFRQVXPHN/D\HDU7KH¿UVWQLJKWZH VOHSWLQRXUQHZKRXVHDWKRXU,ZDVZRNHQXSE\DVWUDQJHQRLVH,TXLFNO\IRXQGRXWWKDWWKHVSULQNOHUV\VWHP ZDVLQXVH)RUDQKRXUWKHODZQZDVZDWHUHG7KHVDPHQRLVHZDVQWLFHGDJDLQDWDP$JDLQWKHVSULQNOHU V\VWHPVWDUWHG7KLVDOOUHVXOWHGLQDKXJHZDWHUFRQVXPSWLRQ,QWKHHQG,XVHGIDUPRUHWKDQN/D\HDUWKH ¿QDOYROXPHRIZDWHUZDVN/RUDGDLO\XVHRIOSSSG

7RZQ&LW\ 3ULFHSHUNLOROLWUH )L[HGFKDUJH $QQXDOELOOIRUN/FRQVXPSWLRQ

Adelaide 0.42: < 125 kL 135 312.5

1.00: > 125 kL

Brisbane 0.84 100 310

Sydney 0.98 76.55

Melbourne

- City West Water 0.80 84.44 283.99

- South East Water 0.81 35.88 238.23

- Yarra Valley Water 0.78 59.12 253.05

Perth 0.42: < 150 kL 149 278.8 0.67: 151 – 350 kL 0.91: 351 – 550 kL 1.20: 551 – 950 kL 1.50: > 950 kL Canberra 0.43: < 175 kL 125 279 1.05: > 175 kL

to increase by 53%, Perth by 35%, and Sydney and Melbourne are projected to increase by 20% DQGUHVSHFWLYHO\/LWWOHJURZWKLVSURMHFWHGIRU $GHODLGHDQGWKH$&7$XVWUDOLDQ%XUHDX of Statistics projections 2003).

&RQVLGHULQJWKHGHFUHDVLQJUDLQIDOOLQPRVWRIWKH country (15% in the Eastern States and South $XVWUDOLD DQG WKH LQFUHDVLQJ SRSXODWLRQ LQ WKHVH VDPHDUHDVLWLVQRWGLI¿FXOWWRVHHWKDWWKH$XVWUDOLDQ ZDWHUXWLOLWLHVIDFHVVRPHUHDOFKDOOHQJHVLQSURYLG-LQJVXI¿FLHQWZDWHUWRWKHLUFXVWRPHUVLQWKHIXWXUH How to deal with this increasing demand? 7KHUH DUH GLIIHUHQW VROXWLRQV WR GHDO ZLWK WKLV LQFUHDVLQJGHPDQGVRPHDUHEHKDYLRXUDOVROXWLRQV others are technical solutions.

Behavioural solutions

,QWLPHVRIH[WUHPHGURXJKWDVLQWKHODVWGHFDGH PRVWFLWLHVLQWURGXFHZDWHUUHVWULFWLRQV7KLVPHDQV that the use of water is limited for some periods of WLPH RI WKH GD\ DQG IRU VRPH DFWLRQV ,Q JHQHUDO WKHUHDUHOHYHOVRIUHVWULFWLRQDOWKRXJKQRWLQDOO VWDWHV$QRYHUYLHZRIWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHGLIIHU-ent level of restrictions, the currVWDWHV$QRYHUYLHZRIWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHGLIIHU-ent restrictions and

reservoir levels in the major cities can be found RQ KWWSVZZZZVDDDVQDXIUDPHVHWKWPO 7KH OHYHO RI UHVWULFWLRQV LV WULJJHUHG E\ WKH DPRXQW RI ZDWHULQWKHGULQNLQJZDWHUUHVHUYRLUV2QFHLWGURSV XQGHUQHDWKDFHUWDLQOHYHOWRXJKHUUHVWULFWLRQVFRPH into place.

0XFKLQIRUPDWLRQLVJLYHQE\WKHZDWHUXWLOLWLHVDERXW the restrictions on their websites, on television and UDGLRDQGLQVFKRROV6HHIRUH[DPSOHWKH³RXUZDWHU RXUIXWXUH´ZHEVLWHVHH:HEVLWHRUWKH³VDYH ZDWHU´ZHEVLWHVHH:HEVLWH

In Australia the water utilities spent an enormous amount of time and effort in water education. By tell-LQJSHRSOHZKDWWKH\FDQGRWROLPLWWKHLUZDWHUXVH the water utilities hope that the daily consumption will be limited. On all websites of the water utilities calculations of your daily water consumption can be made and methods to decrease your consumption DUHJLYHQVHH:HEVLWHV)XUWKHUPRUH ZDWHUVDYLQJJDPHVDUHGHYHORSHGIRU\RXQJFKLO-dren to make the aware of the precious water. Also PXFKSXEOLFLW\LVJLYHQWRVPDUWZDWHULQYHQWLRQV

7KHSRSXODWLRQRI$XVWUDOLDLVVWLOOLQFUHDVLQJUDSLGO\%HVLGHVWKLVDOVRWKHQXPEHURISHRSOHOLYLQJLQDKRXVHLV GHFUHDVLQJ$XVWUDOLDQVDOVRVSHQWPRUHPRQH\RQDVHFRQGKRXVHDZD\IURPWKHFLW\,QWKHGLIIHUHQWWULSV,PDGH in South Australia it was clearly visible that in the coastal communities around Adelaide many people build their VHFRQG KRXVH$OO WKHVH QHZ GHYHORSPHQW DUHDV KDYH WR EH VXSSOLHG ZLWK GULQNLQJ ZDWHU7KH GULQNLQJ ZDWHU LV sometimes transported over a distance of more than 800 km. All pipelines to transport water to remote areas are PDGHRIVWHHODUHSODFHGDERYHJURXQGDQGZDWHUWHPSHUDWXUHFDQJRXSWRGHJUHHV,Q:HVWHUQ$XVWUDOLDHYHQ WHPSHUDWXUHVRIGHJUHHVDUHIRXQGLQWKH.DOJRRULHSLSHOLQHDQGVSHFLDOKHDWVKLHOGVKDYHEHHQGHVLJQHGWROLPLW the water temperature increase. Of course it is questionable if the transport of water over these vast distances is a sustainable solution.

Figure 6 - ABS population estimates for 2001 and pro-jections for 2032.

1RW VXUSULVLQJO\ WKH GXDO WRLOHW LV RULJLQDWLQJ IURP $XVWUDOLD$OVRWKHWLPHVKDYLQJVKRZHUWLPHUVDUH JHWWLQJPXFKDWWHQWLRQDWWKHPRPHQWVHH:HEVLWH 15).

7KHUH LV D ODUJH VRFLHWDO FRQWURO RI WKH ZDWHU UHVWULFWLRQVDVQHLJKERXUVUHSRUWHDFKRWKHUZKHQ WKH\ DUH XVLQJ ZDWHU QRW RQ WKH DSSURSULDWH GD\ Furthermore, several cities have appointed special ZDWHUSDWUROV7KHVHDUHRI¿FHUVSDWUROOLQJWKHFLW\ ORRNLQJIRUKRXVHKROGVZDVWLQJZDWHUDQGDOVRWR HGXFDWHSHRSOHRQZDWHUXVH+HDY\¿QHVDUHJLYHQ when people don’t comply with the restrictions. In Adelaide those who fail to comply with restrictions ZLOOEHLVVXHGZLWKDQRWLFHUHPLQGLQJWKHPRIWKHLU responsibilities. If non-compliance continues, a

H[SLDWLRQQRWLFHZLOOEHLVVXHG6HULRXVDQG RQJRLQJEUHDFKHVFRXOGUHVXOWLQFRXUWDFWLRQDQG ¿QHVRIXSWRIRULQGLYLGXDOVRUIRU businesses.

Technical solutions

Besides these more behavioural solutions water XWLOLWLHVFRQVXOWDQWVDQGIHGHUDODQGVWDWHJRYHUQ-ment look for technical solutions on how to cope with the lower amount of water available as a direct UHVXOWIRUWKHGURXJKWDQGWKHLQWKHFRPLQJ\HDUV LQFUHDVLQJ GHPDQG DV D UHVXOW RI WKH SRSXODWLRQ JURZWK +HUHDIWHU MXVW VRPH SRWHQWLDO DSSOLFDEOH VROXWLRQVDUHJLYHQ0DQ\PRUHDUHSURSRVHGOLNH WKH EOXH VN\ SURMHFWV DV WRZLQJ LFHEHUJ IURP WKH $QWDUFWLFWR$XVWUDOLDDQGVKLSSLQJZDWHUIURPWKH Since October, 21st _{water was restricted in Adelaide, water restrictions level 2 were in place. I was only allowed to}

XVHZDWHURXWGRRUVRQGD\VRIWKHZHHN7KHUHVWULFWLRQVDUHDLPHGWRUHGXFHWKHZDWHUFRQVXPSWLRQ6R,ZDV quite surprised to read in the paper that since the water restriction introduction the water consumption in the Adelaide &%'DUHDKDVLQFUHDVHG7KHUHDVRQIRUWKLVLQFUHDVHLVWKDWSHRSOHQRZDUHDZDUHWKDWWKH\FDQQRWXVHZDWHUHYHU\ GD\7KHUHIRUHWKH\SURJUDPWKHLUVSULQNOHULQVWDOODWLRQVWRZDWHUWKHJDUGHQRQFHHYHU\GD\ZLWKPRUHWKDQWZLFHWKH QRUPDODPRXQWRIZDWHUUHVXOWLQJLQDQRYHUDOOZDWHUFRQVXPSWLRQLQFUHDVH<RXFDQVD\WKDWWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIWKH ZDWHUUHVWULFWLRQVOHYHOEDFN¿UHG5HVWULFWLRQVOHYHOZLOOEHDQQRXQFHGRQ-DQXDU\st_{QRWDOORZLQJZDWHULQJ}

WKHJDUGHQZLWKVSULQNOHULQVWDOODWLRQVEXWRQO\ZLWKDKDQGKRVHZLWKVSHFLDOZDWHUQR]]OH

.LPEHUOH\VLQJLDQWZDWHUWUDQVSRUWEDJVWR3HUWKRU WUDQVSRUWLQJZDWHUE\SLSHOLQHVIURPWKH2UGULYHULQ WKHQRUWKRI$XVWUDOLDWKURXJKNPRIGHVHUWWR Adelaide and Melbourne

5DLQZDWHUWDQNV

A simple and practical solution is to use all the UDLQ DV HIIHFWLYHO\ DV SRVVLEOH 7KHUHIRUH LQ UXUDO areas but also in the urban areas people install rain ZDWHUWDQNV7KLVZDWHULVYHU\XVHIXOIRUZDWHULQJ WKH JDUGHQ WKH PDLQ ZDWHU FRQVXPHU 6HYHUDO VWDWHJRYHUQPHQWVKDYHGUDIWHGUHEDWHVFKHGXOHV HQFRXUDJLQJSHRSOHWRXVHUDLQZDWHUWDQNV New dams

1RZ WKH FRXQWU\ LV IDFLQJ D YHU\ VHYHUH GURXJKW SHULRG GLVFXVVLRQV DERXW EXLOGLQJ QHZ GDPV WR create reservoirs are omnipresent. Of course it is questionable if this will help as these reservoirs will RQO\¿OOZKHQUDLQLVIDOOLQJ)XUWKHUPRUHLWWDNHVD ORQJWLPHEHIRUHUHVHUYRLUVDUHEHLQJEXLOWDQGFORVH to the capital cities there are no locations available anymore.

,QGLUHFWSRWDEOHUHXVH,35GLUHFWSRWDEOHUHXVH '35RUVWRUPZDWHUFDSWXUH

7RUHXVHRIZDWHUPXFKDWWHQWLRQLVJLYHQLQ$XVWUDOLD especially as it makes use of water already in the urban water cycle. Many new suburban develop-ment sites already make use of recycled water for QRQSRWDEOHXVHIRUH[DPSOHIRUZDWHULQJJDUGHQV 5HXVH E\ D GXDO UHWLFXODWLRQ V\VWHP LV QR UHDO RSWLRQIRUDOUHDG\H[LVWLQJFLWLHVDVDQH[SHQVLYH

second reticulation system has to be constructed. 5HXVHIRUSRWDEOHZDWHUFRQVXPSWLRQUHFHLYHVORWV of attention, especially in the towns with severe ZDWHUUHVWULFWLRQVOLNH7RRZRRPEDVHHFDVHVWXG\ KHUHDIWHUDQG*RXOEXUQ7KLVUHXVHFDQEHGLUHFW or indirect. Indirect potable water reuse means that WKH ZDVWH ZDWHU LV WUHDWHG DQG WKH HIÀXHQW LV OHG EDFNWRWKHUHVHUYRLUDQGXQGHUJRHVDQDGGLWLRQDO natural treatment. Direct potable reuse means that WKHZDVWHZDWHULVWUHDWHGDQGIURPWKHHIÀXHQWRI DZDVWHZDWHUSODQWGLUHFWO\GULQNLQJZDWHULVSUR-GXFHG7KLVLVDOUHDG\EHLQJGRQHLQ6LQJDSRUHLQ the NEWwater project.

$OWKRXJKWKHUHDUHVRPHVHYHUHZDWHUUHVWULFWLRQV LQ$XVWUDOLDWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLFLVQRWVXSSRUWLQJWKH LGHDRIZDWHUUHXVHIRUSRWDEOHXVH7KH7RRZRRPED FDVHVKRZVWKDWWKH³QRWLQP\EDFN\DUGSULQFLSOH´ LVYDOLG7KHSHRSOHLQJHQHUDOVXSSRUWWKHLGHDRI reuse. But as it concerns their public health their opinion is not in favour for reuse.

Desalination

All capital and major cities in Australia are located close to the coast line. 80% of the population is OLYLQJZLWKLQNPIRUWKHFRDVWOLQH)XUWKHUPRUH the concentrate can be easily disposed in the sea DVORQJDVWKHUHDUHQRUHDOWUHDWPHQWVROXWLRQVIRU this waste stream. As a result desalination is often PHQWLRQHG DV WKH VROXWLRQ IRU$XVWUDOLD¶V GULQNLQJ water availability problems. However, only a few small capacity installations have been built yet con-YHUWLQJVZHDWHULQWRGULQNLQJZDWHUPRVWO\DWWRXULVW ORFDWLRQVDV.DQJDURR,VODQGFDSDFLW\N/G Case desalination Perth

Case Indirect potable reuse

7RRZRRPEDLVDFLW\LQWKH6RXWK(DVWRI4XHHQVODQG$XVWUDOLD,WLV located 132 km west of Queensland’s capital city, Brisbane, and two hours drive from the famous Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast beaches. With DSRSXODWLRQRIDERXW7RRZRRPEDLV$XVWUDOLD¶VVHFRQGODUJHVW LQODQGFLW\DIWHU&DQEHUUDWKHQDWLRQ¶VFDSLWDO7KHFLW\VLWVRQWKHFUHVW RIWKH*UHDW'LYLGLQJ5DQJHDURXQGPHWUHVDERYHVHDOHYHO7KH &LW\RFFXSLHVWKHHGJHRIWKHUDQJHDQGWKHORZULGJHVEHKLQGLW7ZR YDOOH\VUXQQRUWKIURPWKHVRXWKHUQERXQGDU\HDFKDULVLQJIURPVSULQJV HLWKHUVLGHRI0LGGOH5LGJHQHDU6SULQJ6WUHHWDWDQDOWLWXGHRIDURXQG P7KHVHZDWHUZD\V(DVW&UHHNDQG:HVW&UHHNÀRZWRJHWKHUMXVW north of the CBD to form Gowrie Creek. Gowrie Creek drains to the west DFURVV WKH 'DUOLQJ 'RZQV DQG LV D WULEXWDU\ RI WKH &RQGDPLQH 5LYHU SDUWRIWKH0XUUD\'DUOLQJ%DVLQ7KHZDWHUÀRZLQJGRZQ*RZULH&UHHN PDNHVLWVZD\VRPHNPWRWKHPRXWKRIWKH0XUUD\5LYHUQHDU $GHODLGHLQ6RXWK$XVWUDOLD5DLQZKLFKIDOOVRQWKHHDVWHUQPRVWVWUHHWVRI 7RRZRRPEDÀRZVHDVWWR0RUHWRQ%D\DGLVWDQFHRIDURXQGNP 7RRZRRPED¶VZDWHUVXSSO\FRQVLVWVRIGDPV&RRE\3HUVHYHUDQFH &UHVVERRN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¶V0D\RUDSRWDEOHUHXVHSURMHFWZDVODXQFKHG7KLVSODQZLOOUHVXOWLQZDWHUUHFODLPHG IURPDVHZDJHWUHDWPHQWSODQWEHLQJUHWXUQHGWRRQHRIWKHUHVHUYRLUVWRSURYLGHRIWKHSRWDEOHZDWHUVXSSO\ IRU7RRZRRPED &RQVXOWDQW UHSRUWV LQGLFDWH WKDW DIWHU ÀRFFXODWLRQ XOWUD¿OWUDWLRQ UHYHUVH RVPRVLV DQG XOWUDYLROHW GLVLQIHFWLRQWKHSURGXFWZDWHUWREHSLSHGWRZDWHUUHVHUYRLUZLOOFRQWDLQPLOOLJUDPVSHUOLWUHWRWDOGLVVROYHGVROLGV RIDQXQNQRZQFRPSRVLWLRQDQGXQNQRZQRUJDQLFFRPSRXQGV(DUO\WKHFLW\FRXQFLORI7RRZRRPEDGHFLGHG XQDQLPRXVO\LQIDYRXURIWKHUHF\FOLQJSURMHFW+RZHYHUDIWHUKHIW\SURWHVWVIURPWKHORFDOSRSXODWLRQWKHIHGHUDO JRYHUQPHQWLQ&DQEHUUDGHFLGHGWKDWDUHIHUHQGXPZDVQHFHVVDU\ 2Q-XO\7RRZRRPED&LW\&RXQFLOFRQGXFWHGDSROORI7RRZRRPEDUHVLGHQWVRQWKHSURSRVDOWRXVHWKLV PXOWLEDUULHU¿OWUDWLRQV\VWHPIRU¿OWHULQJVHZDJHIRUGULQNLQJSXUSRVHV7KHSROOTXHVWLRQZDV³'R\RXVXSSRUWWKH DGGLWLRQRISXUL¿HGUHF\FOHGZDWHUWR7RRZRRPED¶VZDWHUVXSSO\YLD&RRE\'DPDVSURSRVHGE\:DWHU)XWXUHV 7RRZRRPED"´RIYRWHUVVXSSRUWHGWKHSURSRVDODQGRSSRVHG 7KHQRYRWHUVZHUHDVNHGIRUWKHLUUHDVRQVWRREMHFWWRWKHUHF\FOHGZDWHUSODQV7KHPDMRULW\RIWKHQRYRWHUVZDV QRWFRQFHUQHGDERXWWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHUHF\FOHGZDWHU7KHPDLQFRQFHUQZDVWKHGHFOLQLQJLPDJRRIWKHFLW\DVWKH ³VKLWFLW\´LQ$XVWUDOLDDQGWKHUHVXOWLQJXQIDYRXUDEOHVHWWOLQJFRQGLWLRQV$VDUHVXOWRIWKHQRYRWHWKHKLJKHVWZDWHU UHVWULFWLRQVZLOOVWDUWVRRQ8VDJHRIZDWHURXWVLGHLVWRWDOO\EDQQHGDQGKHIW\¿QHVDSSO\LISHRSOHGRXVHZDWHU 7KHQRYRWHLQ7RRZRRPEDKDVDODUJHSUHFHGHQWIRURWKHUPXQLFLSDOLWLHVDQGFLWLHVLQ$XVWUDOLD,QVHYHUDOPXQLFL-palities a poll on the use of recycled water was scheduled, but it is now questionable if these polls will be held. A GD\DIWHUWKHUHVXOWVRIWKH7RRZRRPEDSROOWKH1HZ6RXWK:DOHVJRYHUQPHQWDQQRXQFHGWKDWWKH\ZLOOQRWIXU-WKHULQYHVWLJDWHWKHXVHRIHIÀXHQWIRUSRWDEOHXVH,WLVQRZXSWRWKH3UHPLHURI4XHHQVODQGRUHYHQWRWKH3ULPH 0LQLVWHUWRRUJDQLVHDSROOGXULQJWKHVWDWHHOHFWLRQVRUJHQHUDOHOHFWLRQVLQSXWWLQJWKHZDWHUGLOHPPDKLJKRQ WKHSROLWLFDODJHQGD

$Q LQWHUHVWLQJ IDFW LV WKDW  GD\V 7RRZRRPED SROO D VXUYH\ VKRZHG WKDW  RI WKH SRSXODWLRQ LQ 6RXWK(DVW 4XHHQVODQGYRWHGLQIDYRXURIUHF\FOHGHIÀXHQWEHLQJDGGHGWRWKHUHJLRQ¶VZDWHUVXSSOLHV7KH³QRWLQP\EDFN \DUG´SULQFLSOHDSSOLHV

DQG5RWWQHVWLVODQGFDSDFLW\N/G$VDUHVXOW the desalination capacity of Australia is only about 1% of the world desalination capacity.

Several water utilities and councils in Australia are LQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHSRVVLELOLWLHVRIGHVDOLQDWLRQWREH DEOHWRPHHWWKHIXWXUHGULQNLQJZDWHUGHPDQG  *ROG&RDVW:DWHU7XJXQ4/'FDSDFLW\*/ year;  3HUWK:$FDSDFLW\*/\HDU  6\GQH\16:FDSDFLW\*/\HDUWHQGHUVZHUH VXEPLWWHGLQ$XJXVW  *RVIRUG:\RQJ16:FDSDFLW\*/\HDU

The Australian drinking water industry

,Q$XVWUDOLDWKHZD\WKHGULQNLQJZDWHULVWUHDWHG DQGPDQDJHGGHSHQGVRQWKHORFDWLRQ7KHSRSX-ODWLRQ LV JHQHUDOO\ FOXVWHUHG LQ ODUJH FLWLHV DORQJ the coast, vast areas of Australia are only very sparsely populated. As a consequence, there is a KXJHYDULDWLRQLQVFDOHLQZDWHUGHOLYHU\V\VWHPV Some water authorities supply populations of more than a million (Sydney Water services four million SHRSOH LQ WKH 6\GQH\ UHJLRQ IRU H[DPSOH ZKLOH many others service as few as several thousand VXFKDV$4:(67LQ%XQEXU\:HVWHUQ$XVWUDOLD VHUYLFLQJDURXQGSHRSOH,QDGGLWLRQVRPH ORFDOJRYHUQPHQWVUXQVPDOOV\VWHPVWKDWVXSSO\ GULQNLQJZDWHUWRDVIHZDVSHRSOHZKLOHDERXW one in six Australian homes use rainwater collected on roof catchments. An overview of all Australian water utilities can be found on the website of WSAA VHH:HEVLWH7KHODUJHYDULDWLRQLQVL]HRIWKH FXVWRPHUVVHUYHGUHVXOWVODUJHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ

companies in water quality related problems, UHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVDQGOHYHORINQRZOHGJH Water sources and drinking water treatment *URXQGZDWHUSURYLGHVDERXWRQH¿IWKRI$XVWUDOLD¶V GULQNLQJZDWHUVXSSOLHV6RPHUHJLRQVXVHOLWWOHRU QR JURXQGZDWHU ZKLOH RWKHUV UHO\ KHDYLO\ RQ WKLV VRXUFH7KH*UHDW$UWHVLDQ%DVLQ$XVWUDOLD¶VODUJ-HVWVRXUFHRIJURXQGZDWHUSURYLGHVWKHRQO\UHOLDEOH and continuous water supply for much of the arid outback, particularly in Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia.

0RVW GULQNLQJ ZDWHU LV RULJLQDWLQJ IURP VXUIDFH water. As the Australian cities are almost all located DWWKHFRDVWWKH\PDNHXVHRIODUJHLQODQGSURWHFWHG FDWFKPHQWV DQG UHVHUYRLUV 7KH SULPDU\ IRFXV RI WKHZDWHUDXWKRULWLHVLVRQSUHYHQWLQJRIZDWHUFRQ-WDPLQDWLRQLQWKHSULVWLQHFDWFKPHQWV7KHOHYHORI WUHDWPHQWLVORZFRPSDUHGWRWKH'XWFKGULQNLQJ ZDWHU WUHDWPHQW 7KH GHIDXOW VXUIDFH ZDWHU WUHDW-PHQW LV FRDJXODWLRQ ÀRFFXODWLRQ VHGLPHQWDWLRQ ¿OWUDWLRQDQGHYHQWXDOO\IROORZHGE\0,(;IRURUJDQLF material removal. Finally the water is disinfected by chlorination or chloramination.

Water quality issues

$XVWUDOLD LV IDFLQJ VHYHUDO ZDWHU TXDOLW\ LVVXHV 6RPHDUHUHODWHGWRWKHGURXJKW%XWPRVWLVVXHV are a result of the different treatment philosophy. In Australia the principle of the total system approach LVDOVRXVHGWRGHOLYHUKLJKTXDOLW\ZDWHUWRWKHFXV-WRPHU7KHIRFXVLVRQSURWHFWLRQRIWKHVRXUFHDQG GLVLQIHFWLRQZLWKFKORULQHFKORUDPLQH$VDUHVXOWWKH level of treatment is limited. A city like Melbourne WUHDWVRQO\RILWVVXUIDFHZDWHUZLWK¿OWUDWLRQ WKHUHVWRIWKHZDWHULVGLVWULEXWHGXQ¿OWHUHG7KH main focus of the Melbournian utilities is therefore

on catchment protection and chemical disinfection. Similar observations can be made for other cities. 7KHZDWHUTXDOLW\LVVXHVWKDWDUHLPSRUWDQWDWWKH moment in Australia are:

 WDVWH DQG RGRXUDOJDO EORRPVWR[LQVQDWXUDO RUJDQLFPDWWHU - disinfection by products - particles build-up 7DVWH DQG RGRXUDOJDH EORRPVWR[LQVQDWXUDO RUJDQLFPDWWHU &\DQREDFWHULDRUEHWWHUNQRZQDVEOXHJUHHQDOJDH UHOHDVHDODUJHUDQJHRIVHFRQGDU\PHWDEROLWHVLQWR DIIHFWHGZDWHUERGLHVFDXVLQJVXFKDGYHUVHHIIHFWV DVWDVWHDQGRGRXUSUREOHPVWKURXJKWRDFXWHWR[-icity. Microcystins and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) DUHWZRFRPPRQO\RFFXUULQJF\DQRPHWDEROLWHVLQ $XVWUDOLDQGULQNLQJZDWHUVRXUFHV0LFURF\VWLQVDUH KLJKO\WR[LFF\FOLFSHSWLGHVSURGXFHGDVVHFRQG-ary metabolites of cyanobacterial species such as Microcystis, Anabaena and Oscillatoria. MIB, or 2-methylisoborneol, is a non toxic cyanometabolite, SURGXFLQJDPXVW\RGRUWKDWFDQEHGHWHFWHGE\WKH human nose at very low levels. Both microcystins and MIB are recalcitrant to conventional surface ZDWHUWUHDWPHQWPHWKRGV(YHQZKHQWKHDOJDHDUH UHPRYHGWKHWR[LQVFDQUHPDLQLQWKHZDWHU7R[LQV FDQEHUHPRYHGZLWKELRORJLFDOVDQGRUDFWLYDWHG FDUERQ¿OWUDWLRQ$VDUHVXOWRIWKHGHFUHDVLQJUDLQ-fall the detention time of water in rivers becomes ORQJHUDQGDOVRWKHWHPSHUDWXUHLVLQFUHDVHG7KLV UHVXOWVLQPRUHDQGORQJHUODVWLQJDOJDHEORRPVDQG associated occurrence of cyanobacteria.

'LVLQIHFWLRQE\SURGXFWV7+0DQG1'0$ Another important water issue are the disinfection by products. As a result of the interaction between QDWXUDORUJDQLFPDWWHUDQGFKHPLFDOGLVLQIHFWDQWV numerous unwanted substances are formed, like

WULKDORPHWKDQHV7+0VDQG1QLWURVRGLPHWK\O-amine (NDMA). In Australia several water utilities use chloramine for disinfection because it is a more stable disinfection product than chlorine. Especially WKH XWLOLWLHV ZLWK H[WHQVLYH WUDQVSRUWGLVWULEXWLRQ V\VWHPVVZDSSHGWRXVLQJFKORUDPLQHLQRUGHUWR DYRLGWKHRFFXUUHQFHRIDPRHELFPHQLQJLWLVFDXVHG E\1DHJOHULDIRZOHUL1DHJOHULDIRZOHULLVDIUHHOLY-LQJDPRHEDZKLFKLVFRPPRQLQWKHHQYLURQPHQW DQGJURZVRSWLPDOO\DWWHPSHUDWXUHVRIWRƒ& ([SRVXUHWRWKHRUJDQLVPLVEHOLHYHGWREHUHODWLYHO\ FRPPRQEXWLQIHFWLRQVUHVXOWLQJLQLOOQHVVDUHUDUH 0RVW UHSRUWHG FDVHV RI 1 IRZOHUL PHQLQJLWLV DUH DVVRFLDWHGZLWKVZLPPLQJLQQDWXUDOVXUIDFHIUHVK- ZDWHUERGLHVDQGLQIHFWLRQRFFXUVWKURXJKLQWURGXF-WLRQRIWKHRUJDQLVPLQWRWKHQDVDOFDYLWLHV&DVHV DUH RIWHQ UHSRUWHG WR EH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK MXPSLQJ RUIDOOLQJLQWRWKHZDWHUSURYLGLQJFRQGLWLRQVZKHUH water is forced into the nose at pressure. Cases of GLVHDVHKDYHDOVREHHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVZLPPLQJ pools where disinfection levels were inadequate, and inhalation of tap water from surface water sup-SOLHVWKDWKDYHEHHQVXEMHFWWRKLJKWHPSHUDWXUHV 7KH LQYROYHPHQW RI WDS ZDWHU VXSSOLHV ZDV ¿UVW documented in South Australia, where a number of cases occurred in the 1960s and 70s in several towns served by unchlorinated surface water deliv-HUHGWKURXJKORQJDERYHJURXQGSLSHOLQHV$ERXW half of the cases in the state did not have a recent KLVWRU\RIIUHVKZDWHUVZLPPLQJEXWKDGLQWUDQDVDO H[SRVXUHWRWDSZDWHUWKURXJKLQKDOLQJRUVTXLUWLQJ water into the nose.

NDMA is a disinfection byproduct of chloramine that has recently had much attention as it is KLJKO\FDUFLQRJHQLFDOUHDG\LQORZFRQFHQWUDWLRQV &RQFHQWUDWLRQVLQ$XVWUDOLDQGULQNLQJZDWHUUDQJH IURPWRQJO$WWKHPRPHQWWKHJXLGHOLQHRI NDMA is Australia in discussion and it is expected WKDWLWZLOOEHQJO6RIRUWKHPRPHQWWKHUHLV QRH[FHHGLQJRIWKHJXLGHOLQHV+RZHYHUREVHUYHG FRQFHQWUDWLRQVDUHFORVHWRWKHJXLGHOLQH

Water quality complaints

$VDUHVXOWRIWKHOLPLWHGWUHDWPHQWRIGULQNLQJZDWHU LQ$XVWUDOLDWKHSDUWLFXODWHDQGRUJDQLFORDGIURPWKH production locations to the distribution system is KLJK,Q0HOERXUQHWKHSDUWLFOHORDGLVXSWRSSPRU PJOZKLOHLQWKH1HWKHUODQGVWKLVORDGLV —JO,QWKH$XVWUDOLDQ'ULQNLQJ:DWHU*XLGHOLQHVQR JXLGHOLQHIRUSDUWLFOHORDGLQJLVPHQWLRQHG+RZHYHU WKHUHLVDJXLGHOLQHIRUWXUELGLW\%DVHGRQDHVWKHWLF considerations, the turbidity should not exceed 5 178,IGLVLQIHFWLRQLVUHTXLUHGWKHQDWXUELGLW\RI OHVVWKDQ178LVGHVLUDEOHDWWKHWLPHRIGLVLQIHF-tion (ADWG, 2004). :LWK WKHVH KLJK ORDGLQJV LW LV QRW VWUDQJH WKDW LQ WKHGLVWULEXWLRQV\VWHPDUDSLGIRXOLQJRIWKHPDLQV WDNHVSODFH:DWHUTXDOLW\FRPSODLQWVDUHKLJKVHH WDEOHDQGPDLQVQHHGWREHFOHDQHGRQDUHJXODU basis. Complaints in Melbourne mainly consist of 7DVWH DQG RGRXU SUREOHPV DQG RFFXUUHQFH RI

HOHYDWHGOHYHOVRI7+0VFDQEHDYRLGHGE\UHPRY-LQJRUJDQLFPDWHULDOIURPZDWHU7KH0DJQHWLF,RQ ([FKDQJH0,(;SURFHVVKDVEHHQGHYHORSHGLQ Australia at the Australian Water Quality Centre LQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWK2ULFD$XVWUDOLDDQG&6,52WR UHPRYHGLVVROYHGRUJDQLFPDWWHUIURPZDWHU0,(; LVDQLRQH[FKDQJHSURFHVVFDSDEOHRIUHGXFLQJWKH OHYHORIGLVVROYHGRUJDQLFFDUERQXSWRSHU-cent and colour up to 80% (Drikas et al., 2002). At Mt Pleasant, a treatment location close to Adelaide, WKH¿UVWIXOOVFDOH0,(;LQVWDOODWLRQKDVEHHQEXLOW with a capacity of 2.5 ML a day. At the moment there LVODUJHLQWHUHVWIRU0,(;LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQG also in Europe as it is a cost effective treatment WHFKQRORJ\WKDWFDQEHHDVLO\UHWUR¿WWHGLQH[LVWLQJ treatment plants.

8WLOLW\ :4FRPSODLQWVSURSHUWLHV :4FRPSODLQWVNPRISLSHV   

Sydney Water 136.2 1.4 113

Melbourne retailers

- City West Water 2.5 0.8 61

- South East Water 3.8 2.2 156

- Yarra Valley Water 4.5 5.6 400

Water Corporation n.a. 20.1 1085

SA Water 2.2 1.1 61

Brisbane Water 9.7 4.8 318

Table 3 - Water quality complaints (WSAA facts 2004)

Figure 10 - RPM curves for Rodleigh street in the Croydon supply zone of YVW Zone: Croydon; Street: Rodleigh

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Time (min) Turbidity (NTU)

discoloration events, while in Perth and Adelaide complaints are caused by taste and odour. :DWHU FRPSODLQWV FDQ EH DYRLGHG E\ FOHDQLQJ RI mains. However, in a country where water restric-tions are in place the water utilities only want to clean WKHPDLQVZKHQUHDOO\QHFHVVDU\7RSUHGLFWZKHUH VHGLPHQWLVDFFXPXODWLQJLQWKHGLVWULEXWLRQV\VWHP a computer model has been developed, called the SDUWLFOHVHGLPHQWPRGHO3607KLVPRGHOLVDQ DGGRQ FRPSXWHU SURJUDP WR WKH IUHHO\ DYDLODEOH (3$1(7 -D\DUDWQH et al.  7KLV FRPSXWHU SURJUDP LGHQWLILHV KRW VSRWV LQ WKH GLVWULEXWLRQ V\VWHPZKHUHFOHDQLQJLVPRVWOLNHO\)XUWKHUPRUH Yarra Valley Water, one of the three Melbournian UHWDLOHUVLVXVLQJWKHLQWKH1HWKHUODQGVGHYHORSHG 5HVXVSHQVLRQ3RWHQWLDO0HWKRGLQWKHSODQQLQJRI WKHLUPDLQVFOHDQLQJSURJUDPPH,QWKHODVW\HDU RYHU530FXUYHVKDYHEHHQPDGHSURYLGLQJ PXFK LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW WKH UDWH RI IRXOLQJ RI WKH PDLQV LQ UHODWLRQVKLS WR GHJUHH RI WUHDWPHQW DQG GLVWULEXWLRQ V\VWHP SURSHUWLHV 7KH FRPLQJ WLPH WKHUHVXOWVRIWKH360PRGHOOLQJDQG530PHDV-urements will be combined for one the of supply ]RQHVRI<DUUD9DOOH\:DWHU)URP¿JXUHLWFDQ EHVHHQWKDWEHIRUHFOHDQLQJRIWKHPDLQWKHPDLQ ZDV YHU\ GLUW\  PRQWKV DIWHU FOHDQLQJ WKH PDLQ was still reasonable clean, there was no necessity WRFOHDQWKHPDLQPRQWKVDIWHUFOHDQLQJDFOHDU IRXOLQJRIWKHPDLQLVREVHUYHGWKHPDLQQHHGVWR be cleaned.

Water education in Australia

It will be clear that Australia’s water future is chal-OHQJLQJ$ FRQWLQXRXV FKDQJLQJ FOLPDWH D ODUJH H[SHFWHGLQFUHDVHLQZDWHUGHPDQGDGHFUHDVLQJ water volume available for consumption and more VWULQJHQWJXLGHOLQHVDUHMXVWDIHZRIWKHSUREOHPV WKDWDUHFUHDWLQJWKLVFKDOOHQJLQJIXWXUH$TXHVWLRQ \RXPLJKWDVNLV³KRZGRHVWKH$XVWUDOLDQHGXFD-WLRQDOV\VWHPUHVSRQGWRWKHVHFKDOOHQJHV"´ In Australia there are in total 43 universities. Of all these universities 28 are more or less involved LQZDWHUUHVHDUFKUDQJLQJIURPZDWHUUHIRUPDQG HQYLURQPHQWDOSROLFLHVJOREDOFOLPDWHFKDQJHDQG

YDULDELOLW\LUULJDWLRQULYHUVDQGFDWFKPHQWWRXUEDQ water (Water Innovation, a new era for Australia, 2004). However, when we look in the educational SURJUDPPHVLQVRPHPRUHGHWDLORQO\IRXUXQLYHU-VLWLHVRIIHURQHRUPRUHFRXUVHVRQGULQNLQJZDWHU WUHDWPHQW0XUGRFK8QLYHUVLW\8QLYHUVLW\RI1HZ 6RXWK :DOHV 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 6RXWK$XVWUDOLD DQG 'HDNLQ8QLYHUVLW\

$GLUHFWUHVXOWRIWKHODUJHQXPEHURIXQLYHUVLWLHVLV that the number of students at the faculties is quite small. For example, in the state South Australia (approx. 1.5 million inhabitants) there are three uni- YHUVLWLHV$OOWKUHHXQLYHUVLWLHVRIIHUDFLYLOHQJLQHHU-LQJFRXUVHUHVXOWLQJLQRQO\DORZQXPEHURI¿UVW year students in 2005. As a direct result the faculty staff is quite small and the staff members have to JLYHDOOJHQHUDOFLYLOHQJLQHHULQJFRXUVHVZKLOHDW the same time they have to specialise in a certain research area.

7KH$XVWUDOLDQXQLYHUVLWLHVUHO\IRUDODUJHSDUWRQ LQWHUQDWLRQDO VWXGHQWV 2Q DYHUDJH  RI WKHLU IXQGLQJLVFRPLQJIURPRYHUVHDVVWXGHQWVPDLQO\ RULJLQDWLQJIURP$VLD&KLQD9LHWQDP3KLOLSSLQHV India). As said before the educational system in $XVWUDOLDLVTXLWHVFDWWHUHG7KLVKDVLWVRULJLQLQWKH ODUJHGLVWDQFHVEHWZHHQWKHGLIIHUHQWFDSLWDOFLWLHV in the country. Students tend from historical reasons WRVWXG\DWWKHXQLYHUVLW\LQWKHLUGLUHFWQHLJKERXU-hood. Only a limited amount of inter state students can be found the universities.

7R JHQHUDWH D PRUH RU OHVV FRQVWDQW UHVHDUFK FDVKÀRZWRWKHXQLYHUVLWLHVPRVWIRUPFRQVRUWLD ZLWKFRPSDQLHV7KHVHFRQVRUWLDDUHDOZD\VVWDWH EDVHG PDNLQJ LW SRVVLEOH WR JHW JUDQWV IURP WKH VWDWHJRYHUQPHQW([DPSOHVRIWKHVHFRQVRUWLDDUH &XUWLQ:DWHU5HVHDUFK&HQWUH:DWHU&RUSRUDWLRQ :$ WRJHWKHU ZLWK &XUWLQ 8QLYHUVLW\ 6$ :DWHU Centre for Water Science and Systems (SA Water DQG 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 6RXWK$XVWUDOLD 'UDZEDFNV RI these consortia are that the research is aimed at VSHFL¿F ORFDO UHVHDUFK WRSLFV DQG QRW DOO DVSHFWV of the water supply processes (source, treatment, distribution systems) are covered.

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Australian drinking water research

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Literature

&5& :47  $ FRQVXPHU¶V JXLGH WR GULQNLQJ water

Drikas M., Morran J.Y., Pelekani C., Hepplewhite C., %XUVLOO'%5HPRYDORIQDWXUDORUJDQLFPDWWHU±D IUHVK DSSURDFK :DWHU 6FLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ :DWHU Supply, 2,1, 71-79.

-D\DUDWQH$5\DQ**UDLJQHU&:X-1RXL0HKLGL 010RGHOOLQJRISDUWLFOHVLQZDWHUVXSSO\V\V-tems. AWA Water, 31(8), 30-36.

2SWLRQ IRU EULQJLQJ ZDWHU WR 3HUWK IURP WKH .LPEHUOH\ KWWSGRZVOLQFGLJLWDOFRPDX¿OHV)LQDOUHSRUWBSGI (2006). Issued by the cabinet of the Premier and cabinet. Government of Western Australia

7KH$OODQ&RQVXOWLQJ*URXSKWWSZZZFUFDDVQDXDFWLY-LWLHV&5&$(FRQRPLF,PSDFW)LQDO5HSRUWSGI 7KH(FRQRPLF,PSDFWRI&RRSHUDWLYH5HVHDUFK Centres in Australia

Water Innovation, a new era for Australia (2004). Kathleen H. Bowner (Ed.). Sydney, NSW: CL Creations.

:LOOLDPV600DLQÀXVKLQJDQGVHGLPHQWPHDV-urement in water mains. In: Water quality in the distribu-tion system. W.C. Lauer (Ed.). Denver, Co: AWWA Works Association.