teoria i praktyka zarządzanie

Zarządzanie. T eoria i Pr aktyka # 2(8)/2013

In this issue:

M. Dobrowolska, Hope of success in non-standard forms of employment

L. Białoń,

Shaping potential for innovative economy R. Dawidziuk, A. Kamińska,

Educational Quality at the Management Faculty of the Warsaw Management University as observed by the Alumni

PUBLIKACJA JU BILEUSZOW

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MEN

ŻER ED J W SKIE ARS W ZAW IE NN / A RSA IVE

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OF WARSAW MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY /

LAT / YEARS

Czasopismo indeksowane na liście czasopism punktowanych MNiSW (5 pkt.) / Journal indexed in Ministry of Science and Higher Education Index (5 pts.)

Wydawca / Publisher: Wyższa Szkoła Menedżerska w Warszawie / Warsaw management university

# 2(8) ROK / YEAR 2013

ISSN 2081-1586

zarządzanie

teoria i praktyka

W umerze między innymi:

M. Dobrowolska, Niestandardowe formy

zatrudnienia nadzieją na sukces

L. Białoń,

Kształtowanie potencjału dla gospodarki innowacyjnej R. Dawidziuk, A. Kamińska, Jakość kształcenia na Wydziale

Menedżerskim Wyższej Szkoły

Menedżerskiej w Warszawie

w opinii absolwentów

Redakcja „Zarządzania. Teorii i Praktyki” zaprasza do współpracy Autorów, którzy chcieliby publikować swoje teksty na łamach naszego pisma. Uprzejmie informujemy, że przyjmujemy do publikacji artykuły nie dłuższe niż 20 stron znormalizowanego maszynopisu (1800 znaków ze spacjami na stronę), a w przypadku recenzji – niż 8 stron. Do artykułów prosimy dołączyć streszczenie w języku polskim i angielskim (wraz z angielskim tytułem artykułu) o objętości do 200 słów. Prosimy o niewprow- adzanie do manuskryptów zbędnego formatowania (np. nie należy wyrównywać tekstu spacjami czy stosować zróżnicowanych uwypukleń, wyliczeń itp.). Sugerowany format: czcionka Arial, 12 pkt., interlinia 1,5. Piśmiennictwo zawarte w artykule należy sformatować zgodnie z tzw. zapisem harwardzkim, zgodnie z którym lista publikacji istotnych dla artykułu ma być zamieszc- zona na jego końcu i ułożona w porządku alfabetyczny. Publikacje książkowe należy zapisywać:

Fijałkowska B., Madziarski E., van Tocken T.L. jr., Kamilska T. (2014). Rola startystyki w biznesie. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo WSM.

Rozdziały w publikacjach zwartych należy zapisywać:

Bojan A., Figurski S. (2014). Hodowla zwierząt futerkowych – szansa czy kamień u szyi polskich rolników. W.S. Białokozowicz (red.), Nowoczesne rolnictwo – próba syntezy. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo WSM.

Artykuły w czasopismach należy zapisywać:

Bobrzyński T.A. (2009). Reduction of Income Inequality in Europe. British Econimic Journal 34 (4): 345-356.

Materiały elektroniczne należy zapisywać:

Zientkieicz K. Analiza porównawcza egocentryka i hipochondryka. Żart czy parodia wiedzy? Portal Naukowy “Obol”. www.obol.

polska-nauka.pl (data dostępu: 2014.07.31).

W tekście artykułu cytowaną publikację należy zaznaczyć wprowadzając odnośnik (nazwisko data publikacji: strony) lub – gdy przywołane jest nazwisko autora/nazwiska autorów w tekście – (data publikacji: strony), np.: Radzieckie władze „[…] podjęły walkę z tzw. sprzedażą podpodłogową na dwóch płaszczyznach: ideologicznej i materialnej” (Fijałkowski i wsp. 2014: 23). lub: Radziecka prasa, jak stwierdzają Fijałkowski i wspólnicy, „w latach 1946-1947 lżyła wolny rynek” (2014: 45). W przypadku przywoływanych tekstów, gdy nie ma bezpośredniego cytowania, należy jedynie podać nazwisko i rok publikacji (bądź sam rok, jeśli nazwisko autora pada w tekście głównym). W odnośnikach w tekście głównym należy w przypadku więcej niż dwóch autorów wprowadzić „i wsp.”, np. (Fijałkowski i wsp. 2014). W tekście piśmiennictwa (tj. alfabetycznie ułożonej literaturze) prosimy wymienić wszystkich autorów danej publikacja. Więcej o zasadach stylu harwardzkiego m.in. na Wikipedii (http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przypisy_

harwardzkie). Uwaga, przypisy krytyczne, inaczej tzw. aparat krytyczny, prosimy w miarę możliwości zredukować do minimum i wprowadzać do głównego tekstu manuskryptu.

Zaznaczamy, że Redakcja nie płaci honorariów, nie zwraca tekstów niezamówionych oraz rezerwuje sobie prawo do skracania tekstów.

Teksty prosimy przesyłać drogą elektroniczną na adres wydawnictwo@mac.edu.pl Materiały można również składać w dwóch egzemplarzach maszynopisu wraz z wersją elektroniczną (zapisaną na nośniku, np. płycie CD, w formacie Microsoft Word lub Open Office), w siedzibie Redakcji lub wysyłać pocztą na adres:

Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Menedżerskiej w Warszawie ul. Kawęczyńska 36, 03-772 Warszawa

Do tekstu należy dołączyć informację o aktualnym miejscu zamieszkania, nazwie i adresie zakładu pracy, tytule naukowym, stanowisku i pełnionych funkcjach. Każdy tekst przesłany pod adres Redakcji z prośbą o druk na łamach czasopisma podlega ocenie. Proces recenzji przebiega zgodnie z założeniami „double blind” peer review (tzw. podwójnie ślepej recenzji). Do oceny tekstu powołuje się co najmniej dwóch niezależnych recenzentów (tzn. recenzent i autor tekstu nie są ze sobą spokrewni, nie występują pomiędzy nimi związki prawne, konflikty, relacje podległości służbowej, czy bezpośrednia współpraca naukowa w ciągu ostatnich 5 lat). Recenzja ma formę pisemną i kończy się stwierdzeniem o dopuszczeniu lub niedopuszczeniu tekstu do druku.

W związku z przypadkami łamania prawa autorskiego oraz dobrego obyczaju w nauce, mając na celu dobro Czytelników, uprasza się, aby Autorzy publikacji w sposób przejrzysty, rzetelny i uczciwy prezentowali rezultaty swojej pracy, niezależne od tego, czy są jej bezpośrednimi autorami, czy też korzystali z pomocy wyspecjalizowanego podmiotu (osoby fizycznej lub prawnej).

Wszystkie przejawy nierzetelności naukowej będą demaskowane, włącznie z powiadomieniem odpowiednich podmiotów (insty- tucje zatrudniające Autorów, towarzystwa naukowe itp.).

Do przedłożonych tekstów z prośbą o druk, Autor tekstu jest zobowiązany dołączyć:

1. Informację mówiącą o wkładzie poszczególnych Autorów w powstanie publikacji (z podaniem ich afiliacji oraz kontrybucji, tj. informacji, kto jest autorem koncepcji, założeń, metod, protokołu itp. wykorzystywanych przy przygotowaniu publikacji), przy czym główną odpowiedzialność ponosi Autor zgłaszający manuskrypt.

2. Informację o źródłach finansowania publikacji, wkładzie instytucji naukowo-badawczych, stowarzyszeń i innych podmiotów.

Informacja dla Autorów

# 2(8) ROK / YEAR 2013

zarządzanie

teoria i praktyka

Rada Naukowa / Editorial Board:

Przewodniczący / Chairman:

prof. dr hab. Stanisław Sudoł Dr h.c. (Polska / Poland) Członkowie / Members:

prof. PhDr. Viera Bacova, DrSc. (Słowacja / Slovakia), prof. dr hab.

Ewgenii Bobosow (Białoruś / Belarus), prof. dr hab. Paweł Czar- necki (Polska / Poland), prof. dr hab. Marian Daniluk (Polska / Po- land), prof. Stanisław Dawidziuk dr h.c. (Polska / Poland), prof. ThDr.

Josef Dolista, CSc. (Czechy / Czech Republic), prof. dr hab. Alexander Belochlavek, dr h.c. (Czechy / Czech Republic), prof. PhDr. Rudolf Dupkala, CSc. (Słowacja / Slovakia), prof. dr hab. Marek Garbicz (Pol- ska / Poland), prof. dr. Otar Gerzmava (Gruzja / Georgia), PhDr. Mar- ta Gluchman, PhD. (Słowacja / Slovakia), prof. Ing. Dr. Renáta Hótová (Czechy / Czech Republic), prof. dr hab. Lech Jaczynowski (Polska / Poland), prof. dr Eberhard Kalwait (Niemcy / Germany), doc. PhDr.

Nadežda Krajčova, PhD. (Słowacja / Slovakia), prof. MUDr. Vladi- mir Krčmery, PhD, DrSc. dr h.c. Mult. (Słowacja / Slovakia), prof. dr hab. Stanisław Lis (Polska / Poland), prof. dr hab. Stanisław Marciniak (Polska / Poland), prof. Liviu Marian (Rumunia / Romania), prof. dr hab. John McGraw (Kanada / Canada), prof. PhDr. František Mihina, CSc. (Słowacja / Slovakia), prof. dr hab. Nella Nyczkało (Ukraina / Ukraine), prof. dr hab. Alicja Sajkiewicz (Polska / Poland), prof. dr hab. dr h.c. Hans Joachim Schneider (Niemcy / Germany), dr h.c.

prof. Daniel J. West Jr. PhD. FACHE, FACMPE (USA), prof. dr hab.

Minoru Yokoyama (Japonia / Japan) Wydawca / Publisher:

Wyższa Szkoła Menedżerska w Warszawie / Warsaw Management University

Adres Redakcji i Wydawcy / Address of the Publisher and Editorial Office:

Wyższa Szkoła Menedżerska w Warszawie ul. Kawęczyńska 36, 03-772 Warszawa, wsm.warszawa.pl, tel. 22 59 00 868 , e-mail: wydawnictwo@mac.edu.pl / Warsaw Management University 36 Kaweczynska St., 03-772 Warsaw, Poland, phone: +48 22 59 00 868 ,

e-mail: wydawnictwo@mac.edu.pl

Wersja pierwotna (referencyjna) czasopisma to wersja drukowana. / The original (reference) version of the journal is printed.

Za publikację w „Zarządzaniu. Teorii i Praktyce” (zgodnie z Wykazem czasopism naukowych MNiSW, część B, pozycja nr 2492), Autorzy wpisują do dorobku naukowego 5 pkt. / Authors of “Zarządzanie. Teoria i Praktycka” receive 5 points (according Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education)

„Zarządzanie. Teoria i Praktyka” – półrocznik z zakresu nauk ekonimicznych, zawiera artykuły odzwierciedlające procesy ekonomiczne zachodzące w Polsce, w Europie i na świecie / “Zarządzanie. Teoria i Praktyka” – half- -yearly scientific magazine publishing articles on economic processes in Poland, Europe and the whole world Redaktor Naczelny / Editor-in-Chief:

prof. dr hab. Lidia Białoń

Zastępca Redaktora Naczelnego / Vice-Editor-in-Chief:

dr inż. Alfreda Kamińska

Sekretarze Redakcji / Managing Editors:

doc. dr Waldemar Stelmach

Redaktorzy tematyczni / Section Editors:

prof. dr hab. Krzysztof Wituszyński prof. dr hab. Jadwiga Marek prof. dr hab. Zbigniew Staniek

Redaktor statystyczny / Statistical Editor:

dr hab. Ewa Frątczak

Redaktorzy językowi / Language Editors:

język polski / Polish: Dorota Bruszewska, język angielski / Eng- lish: Eric Banks (native speaker), Marta Dawidziuk, język rosyjski / Russian: Jadwiga Piłat, język słowacki / Slovak language: Andrea Gieciová-Èusová (native speaker)

Opracowanie okładki / Cover designe by:

Elżbieta Kąkol

Skład i łamanie / DTP:

Wydawnictwo WSM, Andrzej Goworski, Wiesław Marszał. Grafiki oraz zdjęcia zgodne z / All images in ac- cordance with:

Wszystkie nadsyłane artykuły naukowe są recenzowane. Proce- dura recenzowania artykułów, zapora ghostwriting oraz zasady przygotowywania tekstów i instrukcje dla autorów znajdują się na stronie internetowej czasopisma www.wsm.warszawa.pl w zakładce Wydawnictwo / All articles are peer reviewed. The procedure f or reviewing articles, and the Guide for Authors can be found on the website of the

journal (www.kaweczynska.pl/wydawnictwo/czasopisma) Korekta artykułów zamieszczanych w czasopiśmie wykonywana jest przez Autorów periodyku / Proofreading by authors.

Drukowane w Polsce / Printed in Poland — Nakład / Circulation: 500

© Copyright by Wyższa Szkoła Menedżerska w Warszawie (Warsaw Management University)

Żaden fragment tej publikacji nie może być reprodukowany, umieszczany

w systemach przechowywania informacji lub przekazywany

w jakiejkolwiek formie − elektronicznej, mechanicznej, fotokopii czy

innych reprodukcji – bez zgodny posiadacza praw autorskich. / All

rights reserved by Warsaw Management University. No part of this pub-

lication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, record-

ing or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Spis treści / Contents

Od Redakcji / Editorial 3

Svitlana Bebko

The economic aspects of access to qualitative higher education for socially unprotected groups of people in China / Ekonomiczne aspekty dostępu do edukacji wyższej dla mieszkańców Chin nieobjętych opieką socjalną

5

Małgorzata

Dobrowolska Hope of success in non-standard forms of employment /

Niestandardowe formy zatrudnienia nadzieją na sukces 9 Natalja Pavlovna

Kolpakova

Развитие навыков ассертивного поведения студентов вуза в изобразительной деятельности / Rozwój

asertywnych nawyków wśród studentów uniwersytetu w ramach prac graficznych

15

Jiří Koleňák, Lucie Koleňáková

Management of companies in conditions of Eastern Europe countries and Russia – barriers and challenges / Zarządzanie przedsiębiorstwami w warunkach Wschodniej Europy i Rosji – przeszkody i wyzwania

19

Lidia Białoń Kształtowanie potencjału dla gospodarki innowacyjnej /

Shaping potential for innovative economy 27

Marta Zygier Skuteczne zarządzanie bankiem / Effective bank management 35 Magdalena

Kiełkowicz

Problemy etyki środowiskowej w kontekście efektywnego zarządzania środowiskiem / The problem of environmental

ethics in the context of effective management of the environment 39 Jewgien Teslenko Прагматизм протидії корупції в митних органах україни

/ Pragmatism countering corruption in the Customs Service

of Ukraine 47

Radosław Dawidziuk, Alfreda Kamińska

Jakość kształcenia na Wydziale Menedżerskim Wyższej Szkoły Menedżerskiej w Warszawie w opinii absolwentów / Educational Quality at the Management Faculty of the Warsaw Management University as observed by the Alumni

55

Ludmila Pietrowna

Lobkovskaya К вопросу об универсальности языковых знаков /

To the question of universality of linguistic signs 61 Waldemar Aftyka Marketingowe aspekty przywództwa

politycznego – produkt polityczny / Marketing aspects of

political leadership as a political product 66 Tamara Iwanowna

Jakowuk

Место туристической рекламы в оптимизации

рынкаиндустрии отдыха / Znaczenie reklamy w procesie

optymalizacji branży turystycznej 73

Od Redakcji

Oddajemy do dyspozycji szanownych czytelników nowy numer 2/2013 czasopisma

„Zarządzanie. Teoria i Praktyka”. Niestety, numer nieco spóźniony. Wynikła ta sytuacja z powodu zmian organizacyjnych i finansowych związanych przede wszystkim z uzyskaniem przez czasopismo punktacji nadawanej przez Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego za merytoryczne osiągnięcia czasopism. Punktów tych uzyskaliśmy na początek 5, na 10 możliwych. Obiecujemy, że z chwilą całkowitego unormowania wszystkich problemów, sytuacja z opóźnieniem już się nie powtórzy. Chwilowo bieżący numer dostępny jest tylko w wersji internetowej. Wersja drukowana – w następnej kolejności, w niedługim czasie.

Uzyskanie wyżej wymienionej punktacji związane jest z szeregiem obowiązków merytorycznych i organizacyjnych. Między innymi z obowiązkiem zamieszczania artykułów z zagranicy;

w rodzimym języku autorów. Stąd na trzynaście artykułów siedem jest w języku niepolskim.

Mamy nadzieję, że nie przysporzy to naszym czytelnikom większych kłopotów.

Diapazon zamieszczonych artykułów jest stosunkowo obszerny; jak zawsze. Ale i problemy zarządzania, tak w ujęciu teoretycznym jak i praktycznym, są obszerną dziedziną zainteresowania wielu autorów.

Tym, którzy do nas napisali, dziękujemy. Następnych gorąco zapraszamy.

Redakcja

Zarządzanie. Teoria i Praktyka 2/2013 ISSN 2081-1586 str. 5-7

Svitlana Bebko

Kyiv National University of Technologies and Design, Kyiv, Ukraine

The economic aspects of access to qualitative higher education for socially unprotected

groups of people in China / Ekonomiczne aspekty dostępu do edukacji wyższej dla mieszkańców Chin nieobjętych opieką socjalną

Correspondence address:

Svitlana Bebko

Kyiv National University of Technologies and Design e-mail: wydawnictwo@mac.edu.pl

A ^bstrAct

The article features the economic aspects of access to qualitative higher education for socially unprotected groups of people in China. There has been considered the advantages and disadvantages of access to higher education for disabled and low-income students.

K ey words : equal access to higher education, disabled people, low-income students, distance learning, state allocations, social programs

I ntroductIon

Higher education is the way of social mobility in modern information society. It takes part in further social differen- tiation of its participants. Higher education as the social institute is one of so-called “social elevators” as it enables changes for citizens among social classes. For this reason, one of the priority assignments of Ukrainian education system is to provide the equal access to qualitative higher education of all groups of people, including the socially unprotected ones. In order to fulfill this task, Ukraine sho- uld use the experience of other countries.

Nowadays China is very popular on the world arena. For the last years it has experienced rapid economic develop- ment. It remains the second largest world economy by no- minal GDP after the USA. Since initiating reforms in 1949, living standard of urban population grew by 7 times, of rural citizens – by 5 times.

Chinese higher education system is also developing rapidly now. It provides the national economy with highly skilled specialists, who are able to be creative professionals, to use modern information technologies and new knowledge.

The state authorities of China pay much attention to the development of higher education system, aiming higher education institutions (HEI) at satisfying economic needs.

Only the most talented applicants can enter universities.

University entrance is the real holiday for young people.

Such problem as equal access to qualitative higher educa- tion of socially unprotected people is the relevant issue in China today. For this reason, studying and generalizing the Chinese experience in providing the equal access to qualitative higher education of socially unprotected gro- ups of people is very topical for Ukraine.

t ^{he AnAlysIs of recent reseArch And} publIcAtIons The problems of higher education development are consi- dered by such Ukrainian and foreign scientists as I. Grys- hchenko, I. Kalenyuk, V. Kremen, Zh. Minwei etc. But the problems of equal access to higher education for socially unprotected groups have not been studied profoundly yet.

A ^{Im of the study}

The objective of our research is to study the economic aspects

of access to higher education of socially unprotected groups

of people in China and the elements of Chinese experience in the process of forming and realizing the state policy of sup- porting the socially unprotected groups of people.

d ^IscussIon

For the last years the Chinese government has taken me- asures in providing rights for such socially unprotected group as disabled people. At the international level, the Chinese government is one of the parties of Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Pact on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which confirm the equal rights of all people, including disabled people. At the national level, there had been adopted the Law on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities which deals with regulations and rights of disabled people.

Chinese legislation also protects the right of disabled pe- ople to education. There is a number of laws which guaran- tee the equal access of all groups of people to education.

The Article 38 of Education Law of the People’s Republic of China states: “The state, society, schools and other educational institutions shall organize education in con- sideration of the physical and mental characteristics and requirements of disabled people and offer them assistance and convenience” (Education Law of the People’s Republic of China). Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China also guarantees the equal access of disabled pe- ople to higher education. The Article 9 of the Law says that higher education institutions shall enroll disabled students who are up to the admission qualifications prescribed by the State; they may not refuse to enroll them on account of their disability (Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China). The disabled people are guaranteed to get higher education irrespective of their illness (with the exception of hard mental disorder). Currently 1655 of Chinese HEIs provide the education services to disabled students. Almost 365 thousand disabled students can stu- dy there. Besides, there are 1029 of education centers and 2898 courses which prepare them for entering universities.

Chinese authorities pledged to increase funding for disa- bled students education and cancel some school payments to make their access to education easier. Additionally, one of the peculiarities of Chinese higher education system of financing is donations from beneficial organizations.

But still there are some difficulties in practice. According to Human Rights Watch Report, above 40% of Chinese di- sabled people are illiterate and live under the poverty line (Human Rights Watch Report 2013). One of the challenges is the medical examination for applicants before entrance.

The results of the medical examination are sent to HEIs. In such a way, disabled applicants should declare about the- ir disability what they would not like to do. Some HEIs restrict or even prohibit entrance for people with some

physical and mental “defects”. Thus, contrary to valid laws, while entering universities, there is discrimination for di- sabled students.

The next problem is the lack of special equipment. For instance, the blind students cannot enter the mainstream HEIs as the Government usually fails to provide Braille or electronic versions of entrance exams. But even if they ma- nage to enter, they have to focus on studying professions that are traditional for disabled people, for instance, mas- sage therapy for the blind students (Human Rights Watch Report 2013). Students who aspire to get other professions usually face a plenty of challenges.

There are special education institutions for disabled people in China, including HEIs. The Central government sup- ports such institutions with additional funding. The insti- tutions possess appropriate equipment and special teachers.

But the problem is that these special establishments sepa- rate disabled students from ordinary people and in many cases that is not their wish. One of the positive moments of Chinese experience is promoting HEIs of distance learning.

It is known that distance learning is one of the most efficient ways of obtaining education for disabled people.

Chinese national network of television and radio univer- sities was founded in 1979. Since that time distance lear- ning is developing rapidly. The main means are radio and television programs. The Internet is also being used widely nowadays. There has been suggested to develop distance learning by means of satellite television. Today the Chine- se government also confesses the importance of such uni- versities (Kalenyuk 2012).

As the state authorities actively support obtaining higher education via TV, radio, the Internet and other communi- cation means, the number of distance learning students is increasing annually (Ministry of Education of the People Republic of China 2011). In 2011 the number of distance le- arning students amounted to 492 thousand people (table 1).

Indicators Thousand people

Regular program students 3113,1

Short-cycle program students 3248,1

Education for adults 2020,7

Doctoral programs 132,4

Graduate programs 463,3

Distance learning 492,0

Preparatory courses 67,1

Foreign students 147,5

Table 1. Distribution of education services consumers at HEIs in China by tuition level (without higher vocational colleges)

Source: The Department of Educational Statistics of the People’s Republic

of China

In July 2010 China’s National Plan for Medium and Long- -Term Education Reform and Development (2010-2020) was promulgated. It distinctly formulates the goals to be reached till 2010. It proposes a lot of innovative ideas for higher education improvement. According to this Plan, Chinese Government provides for using innovations, information technologies and facilitating the distance learning (Mini- stry of Education of the People Republic of China 2010).

While entering HEIs, there is a system of benefits for such socially unprotected group of people as orphans and chil- dren from low-income families. There is a number of state programs for financial assistance to students with financial difficulties. These are grants, scholarships, subsidies and even exemption from tuition fee. Besides, HEIs students are allowed to combine their tuition with part-time job if it does not hinder them in their efforts to study.

One of the financial assistance programs for students is the social program “Hope”. It was founded in 1989 by the Fo- undation of Development of Young People in China. Since 2007 the program has initiated the new stage of its activity.

Nowadays it provides much more possibilities for socially

unprotected people who want to get profound higher edu- cation (Minwei 2012).

For the last years the system of state financial support has been constantly improving. In 2011 the state allocated near 73.2 billion RMB for student credits, grants, subsidies and scholarships. In future the allocations are planned to be increased. Government allocations are mainly used for financial support of low-income students. Some HEIs also allocate money for students with financial difficulties.

c ^{onclusIons And prospects of further reseArch}

Providing the equal access to qualitative higher education for socially unprotected groups of people is one of the priorities today. For this reason, the experience of other countries can be useful for Ukraine. There are some positi- ve points in Chinese experience of providing equal access to higher education for disabled and low income people.

These are: the improvement of distance learning, the effi- cient system of benefits for students with financial difficul- ties, variety of social programs. Still, the problem has not been absolutely solved and has to be further studied.

Bebko S., The economic aspects of access to qualitative higher education for...

7

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1995 http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/184669.htm (access: 2014.08.22).

8. Ministry of Education of the People Republic of China (online). Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China as of Au- gust 29, 1998. http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_2803/200905/48457.html (access: 2014.08.22).

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Zarządzanie. Teoria i Praktyka 2/2013 ISSN 2081-1586 str. 9-14

Małgorzata Dobrowolska

Uniwersytet Śląski

Hope of success in non-standard forms of employment / Niestandardowe formy zatrudnienia nadzieją na sukces

Correspondence address:

dr hab. Małgorzata Dobrowolska PhD

Katedra Psychologii Pracy i Organizacji Instytutu Psychologii, Uniwersytet Śląski

e-mail: malgorzata.dobrowolska@us.edu.pl

A ^bstrAct

Article presents a review of the literature associated with the hope of success and the results of the author’s research among employees with flexible forms of employment. A specific distribution of results on the scale of hope for success, both for so- cial-and-demographic correlations and the distribution of the variable itself can be justified by characteristics of conditions typical for a given form of employment that are beneficial or non-beneficial for experiencing hope for success.

K ey words : hope of success, non-standard forms of employment

I ntroductIon

It seems justified to ask if flexible employees think of the- ir own professional success while engaging in non-typical forms of employment, whether it is possible at all to have professional success in flexible forms of employment, com- monly regarded as worse, evaluated in a negative way, be- lieved to be “junk” ones? It seems that everyone to a greater or lesser extent hopes for success in both the private and professional sphere of one’s life. Of course, this thesis applies to people meeting certain standard who are mentally heal- thy. By analysing a rapid development of flexible solutions and highly qualified staff hired under flexible employment contracts, experts, persons in senior positions, it seems al- most obvious, that while working they shall experience the same dilemmas, concerns and difficulties on the one hand, and gratuities on the other. Analysis of hope of success, which contributes to a strong will, effectiveness in difficult situations, pursuance of goals, seeking solutions and faith in the success, results from looking for psychological variables that help solve professional problems, and when it comes to flexible forms of employment apart from a personal flexi-

bility and styles of coping with stress, which shall be analy- sed further on in this paper, hope of success appears to play a key role for overall success in flexible forms of employment.

t ^heoretIcAl formulAtIon of hope for success

Theory of hope was initiated in this version by Snyder in

the 80’s. The author understands hope, and defines it ac-

cordingly, as a positive motivational state related to expe-

riencing two interrelated beliefs: belief in myself as a per-

former, which is a belief in a possibility to complete a plan

made, to initiate goal pursuance following a certain and

pre-chosen path and perseverance in pursuit of the goal,

in spite of encountered obstacles. These are beliefs of the

power of one’s own will, energy manifesting itself in parti-

cular in the face of doubts, obstacles and fatigue (Snyder et

al. 1997; Snyder et al. 2000). The first component is a belief

of having a strong will (in short—strong will). The second

component is a perception of oneself as resourceful and

clever person, someone able to reach one’s goal, to come up

with solutions that will allow for implementation of one’s

plan, conviction of one’s knowledge and competences,

hence the name: conviction of ability to find solutions (in

short: ability to find solutions). Hope understood in such a way, consisting of these two components is defined as hope for success, due to its reference to positive effects of one’s own actions (Trzebiński, Zięba 2003). In such an approach, hope is not an emotional state, but a cognitive motivational process associated with the process of thin- king. Emotions play an important role as well, but they are secondary in relation to cognitive processes (Shorey, Snay- der 2002; after: Łaguna et al. 2005: 7-8).

Hope understood in such a way is to some extent faith in one’s own success with referral to expected and positive re- sults of measures taken, while at the same time experien- cing enthusiasm for engagement in these measures (Trze- biński, Finch 2003). Snayder (2002) defines hope of success as a conviction and thought process in a decision making situation related to a specific action. Convictions are ap- plied in the form of specific thoughts focused on a situation and a specific goal. Hope manifests itself in the form of tho- ughts accompanying action. These thoughts are focused on oneself, being a person who, first of all, is able to pursue one’s own resolutions, and second of all invent and find out solutions for various difficulties.

Hope as disposition, or alternatively, stable belief system acti- vated in specific situations and affecting behaviour is acquired by experience. It is a learned matrix of thinking, which sha- pes the way of interpretation of a situation and assessment of chances for success of one’s own activities, and refers to the way of perceiving oneself (Trzebiński, Zięba 2004).

Hope and optimism are psychologically similar dimen- sions (cf. Peterson 2000). The difference, however, is the highlighting personal involvement in action, which is the key issue in the presented theory (cf. Carver, Scheier 2002), apart from this from the empirical point of view optimism and hope are two independent factors (Magaletta, Oliver 1999). Before identification of an aim, a person analyses achievable target. This assessment of the value of the result is primary in relation to the measures taken. If this assess- ment is positive, pursue of the aim begins. People with high hopes for success are characterised by a high assessment of probability of reaching an aim. They treat aims as chal- lenges, they assess them in the categories of success rather than failure. People with high hopes for success will gene- rate more goals, and when they turn out to be impossible to achieve, they create new ones easily (Snyder 1994; Snyder, 2002, Snyder et al. 1999; after: Łaguna 2006: 423).

Hope of success promotes a positive assessment of an aim understood here as a possibility to make a career in flexible forms of employment and making a decision on pursuing such the path of life.

At this point it is difficult to ignore the issue of basic hope, which, according to Trzebiński and Zięba (2003, 2004) is in general associated with one’s vision of the world than is ordered, logical, reasonable, with a structure favoura- ble for human beings. This is the basis for interpretation of every event, in particular it applies to anticipation and assessment of one’s own chances. This is the basic hope of men. This is a process that manifests itself when we take up new activities, and also when the old ones do not work any more and we must look for new ways and solutions.

The former situation is conducive to challenges, searching for new order of events, new opportunities, the latter is a loss of the old order in favour of a new one. The authors (2003) believe that these two constructs of hope – basic one and hope for success are the two convictions with indepen- dent characters. In the case of failures, while maintaining an order, conviction of one’s own efficiency (Bandura 1986) and capabilities to achieve an aim (Snyder 2002) become important. When, on the other hand, the order is distur- bed, the basic hope may be the factor, which allows one to restore the order. It promotes openness to new experience, seeking new opportunities and positive attitude towards them (Trzebiński, Zięba 2004). One can assume that basic hope is helpful in coping with a situation of lack of work and making a decision to take a chance of starting own business (all after: Łaguna 2006: 424) and working within flexible forms of employment.

Stefańska-Klar (1998) has carried out a synthesis of the issue of hope, stating that it may be treated as emotion asso- ciated with involvement and coping (Smith, Lazarus 1990), and as waiting for the result of pursuing one’s own aims and desires (Mądrzycki 1996), or as the appearance of a specific state of affairs, a personal comparison and assessment of a situation (Folger 1985). When it comes to hope, the rela- ted notions are optimism or its absence (Seligman 1996).

The author draws our attention to prominence of negative

aspect of hope in human existence – the situation of loss

or a permanent absence, deficit of exceptional remedial or

emergency features, particularly for people experiencing

crisis or being in crisis per say (Atkinson, 1995: 75-76). In

the research the author (1995: 78-79) verified private the-

ories of hope on n=615 unemployed persons. In the qu-

alitative analysis she has identified the following defining

ways: as a psychological state – emotion and waiting, faith

in something; as a psychological process – dream of a me-

eting, thinking about the subject of hope; as a permanent

psychological inclination – as personality trait, optimistic

attitude; as a behavioural trend, manifested in behaviour,

making efforts and actions; as a psychological regulatory

system with situational or global reach – internal apparatus

of regaining balance allowing one to recover from crises.

Dobrowolska M., Hope of success in non-standard forms of employment

11 She presents hope as a psychological mechanism in the

two variations (Atkinson 1995: 79-80) hope as a general psychological mechanism, specifying a functioning sty- le of an individual in longer periods of time and hope as a mechanism shaped on ongoing basis and taking forms depending on a structure of a situation. In the case of the first mechanism we can differentiate between passive hope – a tendency to dream, to have trusting attitude towards a given course of events; active hope – source of motiva- tion and a basic existential hope understood as a will of life and existential desire, motivation to cope with events and searching for meaning in them. The second mechanism is to have hope because of something – a positive value, or in spite of something – negative value. Hope may involve both changes in the status quo or one’s own situation, as well as remaining in this situation. Depending on the situ- ation it performs different regulatory functions both with respect to the choice of specific remedial strategies, and in general to functioning in life situations, people prefer dif- ferent restoration and rebuilding styles; they are also aware of their own hope (Atkinson 1995: 86).

Snyder (2002) juxtaposed his theory with descriptions of positive psychology. In his description of optimism Selig- man (1993) emphasises the way of thinking of reasons of events, the way failure and success is explained and inter- preted. An optimistic style does not constitute external and stable attributions of negative results. Theory of hope deals with reaching positive goals taking into account the role of cognitive processes and the energy of actions. Opti- mism as understood by Scheier and Carver (1985, 1992) is a generalized expectations for future positive events, stressing assessments relating to the action, or the effect, whereas in hope it is pursuing goals that is important.

A difference between the theories is also the role assigned to perceived and personal action of a man – confidence in reaching the objectives, not the personal commitment to action itself. Trust and confidence in one’s own efficiency (Bandura 1986) relating to a conviction of one’s own skills is also something else. We are not talking here about speci- fic actions, envisaged result, specific situation and measu- res or purpose. Hope applies rather to more generalised beliefs that one shall be defective in general (Jerusalem, Schwartzer 1992). Conviction of one’s own efficiency ap- plies to a perception of one’s capability to act in a given situation – capability to act. Also, hope is a conviction, that one initiates an action focused on an objective, which is re- flected in the intention of actions (Łaguna et al. 2005: 9-10).

Research by Łaguna (2006) in hope for success related to setting up own business allowed to draw the following conclusion: higher level of hope for success, the basic hope

and optimism promotes the intention of setting up own businesses, especially the conviction of an ability to find solutions. Research has been carried out among the unem- ployed during a training in business start-ups, entrepre- neurs, who declared their willingness to take on the role of an entrepreneurs (the number of the respondents n=332).

Measurement of hope of success was carried out using Hope for Success Questionnaire, developed by Snyder and his colleagues (1991), in the Polish version adapted by Ła- guna, Trzebiński and Zięba (2005). The scale includes 12 statements, including 8 diagnostic ones. It is described in detail in the next section.

The author (Łaguna 2006: 435-436) sums the research up stating, that as a whole it confirms the theoretical concepts.

A conviction that thanks to own efforts and actions one can achieve success is linked with higher assessment of chances of success and an intention to start up a business confirms Snyder’s theses (2002) according to which hope promotes expecting results assessed as positive and en- thusiasm and positive emotions can foster action as well.

The conviction of capability to find ways to reach goals was related to high assessment of their importance and readi- ness to make effort, whereas a conviction of a strong will and energy was linked with higher assessment of chances of success in a start-up. Reversely: low level of hope for success and optimism involves low assessment of chances for success of measures taken and low willingness to take initiatives related to a start-up, which also supports giving the whole idea up, which does not necessarily mean, that resignation is of a failure character, but an alternative aim may be chosen.

Throughout years of research, it has been confirmed that force, understood as a conviction of having competence allowing for success has an impact on efficiency of actions, overcoming difficulties and perseverance in reaching aims, adaptation capacities, positive emotional and physiologi- cal functioning. Also, independence of this construct from optimism and the related factors has been established.

Commonly hope means expectation that things shall de- velop in a specific direction and all potential issues shall be solved. Hope of success is linked to a conviction that success shall be reached and shall be related to one’s own competences. Erikson (1997, 2002) claims, that hope is a conviction concerning characteristics of the world that surrounds us and which is people-friendly, trust in good- ness of nature, etc., what had already been called the basic hope (Łaguna et al. 2005: 5-6).

Porzak and Sagan (2013) in their research reaffirmed the

substantial link between entrepreneurial orientation and

hope for success among people employed in business-re-

lated institutions. A conviction of a capability to cope with various demands is a basis for active operations and effec- tive goal-reaching, for it is built with belief in a capability to initiate actions and perseverance in spite of obstacles.

A conviction of a strong will is particularly strong in this respect. Entrepreneurship is a special flexible form of em- ployment. One can expect that the results obtained for this form of earning money shall be similar to those obtainable in other forms of flexible employment.

 w ^{Ays to meAsure hope for success}

A research tool that has been used in the research part of this paper has been adapted by Łaguna, Trzebiński and Zięba (2005) and is used for testing hope as a comaprati- vely stable disposal. The Hope for Success Questionnaire is made up of 12 statements (including eight diagnostic ones).

It contains four items relating to convictions concerning a strong will, four items relating to convictions concerning capabilities to find solutions and four buffer items. A tested person concerned is asked to imagine him/herself in diffe- rent situational contexts and at different times (as opposed to the scale measuring hope as condition, in which the test describes convictions of the tested at the present moment).

The interviewed indicate their answers on 8 grade scale, where 1 means, that a given claim is clearly false, and 8-that a given claim is definitely true.

The result is the sum of the scores representing the general level of hope for success. A possible range of results is from 8 to 64 points. The higher the score, the greater hope of success is. Apart from the general result, the questionnaire allows for measurement of two components of hope: ability to find hope (4 statements): 1, 4, 6, 8; possible results are within the range of 4 to 32 points; willpower (4 statements):

2, 9, 10, 12; possible results are within the range of 4 to 32 points (Łaguna et al. 2005: 15-18).

Cronbach’s alpha – the internal compliance rate of the Polish version of the Hope for Success Questionnaire – is 0.82. In various tests carried out from 2002 to 2004 it ran- ged from 0.76 to 0.86. Internal compliance indicators for the both subscales have been estimated as well. In the case of a conviction of ability to find solutions it was 0.72 (from 0.62 to 0.76 in specific tests). In the case of a conviction of a strong will the rate was 0.74 (from 0.68 to 0.80). This qu- estionnaire is based on the studies of Snyder and associates.

Other available methods developed by them are as follows:

The Hope Scale (Snyder et al. 1991; Snyder et al. 1997), the Adult trait Hope Scale (Snyder et al. 1999), the trait Hope Scale (Snyder 2002), the Adult Hope Scale (Bryant, Cven- gros 2004). These are the tools for measuring hope as con- dition. They examine children, the young or adults. There is also Basic Hope Questionnaire (BHI – 12) by Trzebiński

and Zięba (2003). This scale contains 12 statements, inc- luding nine diagnostic ones, reliability – Cronbach’s alpha is 0.70. The scale of hope for success measures well the po- wer of conviction of one’s own capabilities to reach aims and success, diagnosing a part of the picture of “myself”, playing an important role in decision-making process, for- mulating plans of action, in the face of failures (all after:

Łaguna et al. 2005: 31).

 p resentAtIon of the Author ’ ^{s reseArch}

The variable of hope of success was examined by the qu- estionnaire described in the previous section among a group of 2118 persons employed in flexible forms of em- ployment: among employees with flexible forms of em- ployment including: teleworking, replacement (substitute) work, temporary work, seasonal work, employment under civil law agreements, commercial contracts for a specified period of time, part-time work, in the social economy, sel- f-employment. It is correlated significantly with two so- cial-and-demographic variables: gender and age. Women have higher results in this scale, as well as the elder and more mature persons. With the other variables, such as:

education, occupation, sector, industry, years in operation, number of employers, duration of contracts, a place of resi- dence, marital status, number of children, no dependency can be found.

Analysis of the relation performed by U Mann-Withney test has shown that there is a statistically significant relation- ship between gender and the results on the scale of hope for success: U=484430.5; p<0.001. Women have slightly higher results (M=65.56; SD=11.546) than men (M=63.83;

SD=10.774). The results on the scale of hope for success are statistically affected by age as well (the relation confirmed by the Kruskal-Wallis test: χ2 (df 2)=38.220; p<0.001). The older a given age group is, the higher score on the analy- sed scale is found: in the group 18-30 years the median=64;

in the group 31-40 years median=65, and the group 41-65 years median=67.

The average score on the scale of hope for success in the analysed group of flexible employees was 64.60 with the variable scope ranging from 12 to 96. The median was 65, which means that half of the analysed scores below 65 points. Skewness becomes negative - distribution is har- dly diagonal - too many high results. Kurtosis is positive, which points at the fact, that the distribution is highly slen- der – there is too much values centred around the average.

To analyse a relationship between the variable hope for

success and a form of employment an analysis of variance

could not be used, as its assumptions were not satisfied (ho-

mogeneity of variance and normality of distribution in the

13 sub-groups). Therefore a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis

test was applied. Analysis of the relationship by Kruskal -Wallis test has shown, that a form of employment signi- ficantly differentiates the test results on the scale of hope for success: χ2 (df 8)=48.829; p<0.001). Median test con- firms this conclusion: χ2 (df 8)=40.376; p<0.001). In all the groups the median values are located in the upper stems according to accepted standards, which means that em- ployees achieve in general high scores on the said scales. It can be concluded, therefore, that the tested population is characterised by hope for success. This result is interesting enough, since as the nation we have tendency for more pessimistic attitudes. The highest value of the median has been observed among the groups with part-time jobs and the self-employed. The lowest value has been observed among the substitute employees. Such a characteristic distribution of results can be justified by characteristics of conditions typical for a given form of employment that are either favourable or unfavourable for the sense of hope for success.

The scale of hope for success is composed of two sub-sca- les. The first one is the scale of conviction of a strong will.

The average score on the scale of conviction of a strong will among flexible employees was 23.18 with the variable sco- pe ranging from 4 to 32. The median was 24, which means that half of the analysed scores below 24 points. Skewness becomes negative – distribution is hardly diagonal – too

many high results. Kurtosis is positive, which points at the fact, that the distribution is highly slender – there is too much values centred around the average.

The second subscale is a scale of a conviction of capabi- lities to find solutions. The average score on the scale of a conviction of capabilities to find solutions in the analy- sed group of flexible employees was 23.91 with the variable scope ranging from 4 to 32. The median was 24, which me- ans that half of the analysed scores below 24 points. Skew- ness becomes negative – distribution is hardly diagonal – too many high results. Kurtosis is positive, which points at the fact, that the distribution is slender – there is too much values centred around the average.

 c onclusIon

Flexible forms of employment analysed in this paper, such as teleworking, replacement work, temporary work, seaso- nal work, employment under commercial contracts, con- tracts for a specified period of time, part-time jobs, em- ployment in social economy and self-employment form such irregular portfolio of forms of earning money, that due to their characteristics, and what follows, conditions of employment, create a unique profile of experienced hope for success. Therefore it is impossible to analyse this psychological variable with respect to flexible employees in general.

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Zarządzanie. Teoria i Praktyka 2/2013 ISSN 2081-1586 str. 15-18

Natalja Pavlovna Kolpakova

Siberian State Industrial University, Novokuznetsk, Russian Federation

Развитие навыков ассертивного поведения студентов вуза в изобразительной

деятельности / Rozwój asertywnych nawyków wśród studentów uniwersytetu w ramach prac graficznych

Correspondence address:

доцент Наталья Павловна Колпакова Кафедра экономики и управления

производством, Сибирский государственный индустриальный университет

e-mail: keup@keup.sibsiu.ru

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Assertive behavior in the behavioral perspective was considered by many domestic and foreign scholars. The aim of this article was to examine how fine arts activity affect the expression of assertive behavior. Basis of the existing studies and its own research demonstrated that, fine arts activities has positive impact on students’ assertive behavior.

K ey words : assertive behavior, assertive behavior, students

Ассертивное поведение в рамках бихейвористского подхода рассматривалась многими отечественными и зарубежными учеными. А. Сальтер подчеркивал важность открытости и спонтанности выражения своих чувств, желаний и потребностей (1). Благодаря многообразию наглядности отработка навыков ассертивного поведения студентов в изобразительной деятельности позволяет осуществить самореализацию и имеет большое познавательное, воспитательное и коррекционное значение.

В процессе изобразительной деятельности предусмотрены условия для осуществления развития естественного конструктивного ассертивного поведения, путем индивидульного и самостоятельного обучения. На занятиях студенты хорошо усваивают последовательность операций и причинно -следственные связи различных действий и явлений.

Следует особо отметить, что поведение в процессе обучения изобразительному искусству студентов -дизайнеров, сопровождается обсуждением, становится более совершенным, осмысленным, целенаправленным, регулируемым и ритмичным. В результате ускоряются процессы усвоения навыков изображения.

В изобразительном искусстве рисунок считают первоосновой, сфера применения которого чрезвычайно широка. Как графическое изображение рисунок является основой создания образа и отображения действительности в других видах искусства. Графика делится, в свою очередь, на станковую, книжную, плакатную, газетно -журнальную, прикладную. Элементы рисунка – это линии, штрихи, пятна, из которых складываются изображения.

Важно освоить все средства изобразительного искусства для применения их в развитии навыков ассертивного поведения студентов-дизайнеров.

Линия в рисунке – основное изобразительное средство, которым студенты овладевают на самых ранних этапах обучения изобразительному искусству. Другое средство изобразительное средство – цвет, явление особое, наделенное конкретным содержанием, совокупность цветов создает колорит изображения.

Важно понять основные принципы гармоничного

сочетания цветов и их оттенков, где цвет выступает

в живописи как основное изобразительное средство.