"Polish Yearbook of International Law" 1988, vol. XVII

INTERNATIONAL LAW

INSTITUT DE L

’

É

TAT ET DU DROIT

ANNUAIRE POLONAIS

DE

DROIT

INTERNATIONAL

XVII

1988

OSSOLINEUM

INSTITUTE OF STATE

AND

LAW

POLISH

YEARBOOK OF

INTERNATIONAL LAW

XVII

1988

WROCŁAW-WARSZAWA-KRAKÓW-GDAŃSK-ŁÓDŹ

ZAKŁAD NARODOWY IMIENIA OSSOLIŃSKICH

WYDAWNICTWO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK

LECH ANTONOWICZ. REMIGIUSZBIERZANEK, WOJCIECH

GÓ RALCZYK, ROMAN JASICA,JERZYKRANZ, MANFRED

LACHS,JERZYMAKARCZYK,JANUSZ MICKIEWICZ,STA

-NISŁAW E. NAHLIK, JERZY RAJSKI, KRZYSZTOF SKUBI

-SZEWSKI,JANUSZSYMONIDES,ANDRZEJ WASILKOWSKI,

KAROL WOLFKE

.

EDITORIAL BOARD* REDACTION

ANDRZEJ WASILKOWSKI (EDITOR-IN

-

CHIEF). JERZY RAJSKI (DEPUTY EDITOR

_-

IN

-

CHIEF),

RENATA SZAFARZ(DEPUTY EDITOR

-

IN

-

CHIEF),

JANUSZ STAŃCZYK (SECRETARY)

ADDRESSOFTHEEDITORIALBOARD*ADRESSE DE LA REDACTION

Institute of State and Law, Polish Academy of Sciences Institut de l’État et du Droit Académie polonaise des sciences

Nowy Świat 72 00

-

330 Warszawa

© Copyright by Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich Wydawnictwo. Wrocław 1990

Articles

MARIAN BANACH, International Status of an Accredited Foreign Correspondent withSpecial Consideration of thePolish Practice

REMIGIUSZ BIERZANEK, Some Remarks on “Soft” _{International Law} . . . .

TADEUSZ ERECIŃSKI, Problems in the Administration of Evidence Arising from

the Rules of the International Commercial Arbitration

GENOWEFAGRABOWSKA, Independenceof the International Civil Servants. . .

.

RYSZARDHARA,JurisdictionofStates in OuterSpace

v ANNAMICHALSKA, La protection internationaledudroit à la vie (problèmeschoisis)

RUDOLF OSTRIHANSKY, Advisory Opinions of the International Court of Justice

as Reviews of Judgments of International Administrative Tribunals

MAKSYMILIAN PAZDAN, Conclusion,révision et résolution du contrat de speciali

-sation et de coopération dans la productions selon les CGSC du CAEM . .

JERZY RAJSKI, Compensation Contracts in International Economie Intercourse in

the Light of Contractual Practice

JERZY RZYMANEK, Protection ofOuter SpaceEnvironment : Urgent Necessity and Challenge for International Law

STANISŁAWSOŁTYSIŃSKI,TheProperLaw ofKnow

-

How Contracts

JANUSZSTAŃCZYK, Application for Interpretation of a Judgment Delivered by the

International Court of Justice .

JANUSZSYMONIDES, Freedom of Navigation in International Straits

RENATA SZAFARZ, Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space aml Us

Regulation in the UN Resolution of 1986

7 41 61 75 85 101 123 147 157 175 193 211 229 Jurisprudence

MACIEJTOMASZEWSKI,ThePolish Court JudgmentsinInternational Civil LawCases ANDRZEJ W. WISNIEWSKI, Awards of the Court of Arbitration at the Polish

Chamberof Foreign Trade in Warsaw

243 251 Notes and Comments * Noteset commentaires

JANBIALOCERKIEWICZ. Powstanieirozwój prawamiędzynarodowego gospodarczego.

Studiumz zakresudoktrynyi źródeł [ La naissance et

r

évolution du droit international by Jerzy Kranz . .

.

RENATA SZAFARZ, Badanie Ziemi z kosmosu w świetle prawa międzynarodowego [Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space in the Light of International_\ Law]

—

by Jerzy Rzymanek

JERZY TYRANOWSKL Zasada nienaruszalności granic w prawie międzynarodowym [ Principle of Inviolability of Frontiers in International Law]

—

by Andrzej Jacewicz

275

économique

.

Une étude de la doctrine et des sources]

276 279

Chronicle _* Chronique

FortyYears of Jurisprudence of the International Courtof Justice [The Second Polish Scientific Conference on International Law. Jabłonna, 30 June

—

2 July, 1988]

—

by Joanna Gomula and Janusz Stańczyk 283

Obituaries* Notes nécrologiques

REMIGIUSZZAORSKI(1912

—

1987)

—

by Andrzej Straburzyński 287

Treaties * Traités

International Treaties Entered into Force in Relation to Poland in 1987

—

by

Joanna Gomuła * 289

Bibliography * Bibliographie

293 Polish Bibliographyof International Law, 1987

—

compiled by Anna Szklennik

.

. .

POLISH YEARBOOK

OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

VOL.XVII, 1988 PL ISSN 0554

—

498X

International

Status of

an

Accredited Foreign Correspondent

with

Special

Consideration

of

the Polish Practice

by MARIAN BANACH

I

The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) ending

1 August, 1975, with the signing of the Final Act. started a new stage

of international cooperation on this Continent

.

The contacts established

between the States involve

now

almost all the spheres of political, economic, cultural and social coexistence of the nations

.

On the basis of the wording

of the Final Act of the CSCE, the States undertook the obligation to

cooperate in spheres which were not regulated to that day

.

In normalized spheres, new aspects of cooperation emerged between the States.1 _The political importance of the CSCE document is universally known

.

The stage of international relations which started earlier and was called the

phase of pacific coexistence was only

now

formally corroborated in the

Final Act. The text of this document favours the trends of the present

international relations by making possible

—

from a legal view

-

point

—

the setting up of such structures and forms of international relations which

should be adapted not only to the present territorial, political, social and

economic factual situation in Europe, but also to the radical changes which are taking place at full speed

.

2 _{As soon as the signatures of their} full

-

powered representativeswereapplied,theStatesassumedthe responsibility to realize the trends and activity methods laid out by the Final Act.3

1 _{Text of the Final Act of CSCE, see}

—

Sprawy _Międzynarodowe_{, 1975, No. 10}. 2 _{See M.DOBROSIELSKI, "'Konferencja} Bezpiecze_{ństwa i Współ}pracy w Europie_” [Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe], Sprawy Międzynarodowe, 1975, No. 10,

p. 23.

3 _{The fact should be noted that for the first time on the arena of international}

politics, in a multilateralagreement with non

-

socialist States, the agreement was signed in the

name of the socialist countries, by the general secretaries or first secretaries of the party, emphasizing, thereby, the leading role of the communist and workers’ parties in these States.

In the group of problems contained in the “ third basket”, the problem of cooperation between the States with regard to information exchange found its due place; it was recognized by the governments of many

States and by international organizations as an element of

a

State’s foreign policyin international relations

.

This

was

reflected in agreements,declarations

and statements of a bilateral nature. On an universal scale, the sphere of

informationexchange was regulated for the first time on such a scale in the Final Act of the CSCE

.

1

It was

a

difficult task to establish the criteria which should guide the States of different social and political systems in international relations with regard to information exchange

.

This

was

revealed by the reports of

proceedings of the Geneva and Helsinki conferences.

Mass media play a special rolein the sphere of international information

exchange

.

Therefore attempts

were

made, at the time of the League of Nations and later by the United Nations (UN) and its specialized organization, the UNESCO, to introduce an uniform practice of the States concerning information.'

’

Apart from the already existing form of information exchange, i.e

.

the

accredited correspondent, a new form of institutionalized exchange was

developed owing to the changing structure of international relations, i

.

e

.

institutes and information and culture centres of the States situated abroad/’

The characteristic feature of both these forms is their information function

.

In the

case

of an accredited foreign correspondent, this activity is of outstanding importance*and consists in gathering information in the State

of residence for the

use

of his own country; whereas the task of institutes 4

The first and only attempt of a multilateral regulation of the mentioned problem

during the period between the two wars, was the international convention on the use of radiophonyinfavourofpeace, signed inGenevaon 23 September, 1936.cf.R.BIERZANEK,

Współczesne stosunki międzynarodowe [Contemporary International Relations], Warszawa 1972,

p. 272; and B.SUJKA, “Międzynarodowa działalność propagandowa i informacyjna” [International Propaganda and Information Activity], Sprawy Międzynarodowe, 1973, No. 6.

At present there are attempts to regulate multilaterally the problem of information exchange on a regional scale. The Lima conference of the ministers of foreign affairs of

non

-

involved States adopted many resolutions, and among other things one resolution concerning the problem of mass media (resolution VI). Text of resolution see: Mieźdu

-narodnaja Politika, Beograd, October 5, 1975.

5

Cf. R.BIERZANEK, op. cir., p. 272 and P.MAĆKOWIAK : Zagadnienie wolności

informacji w pracach Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych [The Question of Freedom of

Informationinthe Worksof the United Nations], Warszawa 1971 and theSAME AUTHOR:

Zagadnienie wolności informacji w pracach UNESCO [The Question of Freedom of Information in the Worksof the UNESCO], Warszawa 1972.

6 _{Terminologyinextenso accordingto} Dziennik Ustaw PRL_{IJournal of Laws of} the Polish People’s Republic further as dziennik Ustaw PRL], 1975, No. 3, item 10.

and information and cultural centres consists in information and cultural

activity propagating their

own

country in the State of residence.

Diffusion of information about their own country is performed

on

the

principle of equal rights with regard to the cultural activitycarried

on

by the receiving State

.

Cooperation concerning information exchange is one of the new spheres of the States’ activities

.

The information is transmitted from the territory of one State to that of another one, through the mediation of institutions or persons, i

.

e. the aforementioned accredited foreign correspondents and

information agencies.7 These forms of the States

-

activities remained until

now outside the range of international law regulations on a very large scale

.

The institution of foreign correspondents reveals

some

features adopted from the sphere of diplomatic and consular law.8

At these problemswere neither regulated by the convention on diplomatic relations of 18 April, 1961, nor by the convention

on

consular relations

of 24April, 1963, they were normalized by the States in bilateral agreements,

and, thus, many different solutions appeared

.

An attempt to standardize the diversified practices applied by the States is now after the adoption of the

Final Act of CBCE to be expected.9 _{The general}

aims and principles

formulated in this multilateral agreement are to be followed by the states they enter intobi

-

andmultilateralagreements which concretize theresolutions

contained in the Final Act.10 _It

_seems

that the states will continue to prefer 7 _{An extensive list of news-agencies, both world}

-

_{wide (TASS, AP, UPI, AFP) and}

national, may be found in the works: Handbook of News Agencies, Prague 1969; and

S.BEGLOV, Mir pressy i pressa mira, Kiev 1975.

8 _{Reference is made to the so-called corps of accredited foreign correspondents; the}

accreditation of a specific person as correspondent should be preceded

—

according to the

diplomatic practice

—

bythe acceptance of the person proposed ascorrespondents (agréation,

agreement) by the receiving State ; the practice “to expel” correspondents (recognized as

persons non grata) in case of committing by them obvious infringements which should in a normal situation constitute without application of a kind of “immunity” (quasi

-immunity, facilitation, conveniences) an infringement of the law in the receiving State and

should come under the proceedingsof the authorities or the courts

.

9 _{The practice of the States may lead under certain defined conditions to the forming}

of a custom. A sanctioned custom is transformed into a legal norm “which is recommended on the presumption of general acceptance” (as a result of its acceptance during a long time). Cf. in this case: M.IWANEJKO, “Efekty jednolitych klauzul traktatowych” [The Effectsof the Homogeneous Treaty Clauses], Ruch Prawniczy, Ekonomiczny i Socjologiczny,

1961, No. 3, p. 110.

10 _{Cf. “Deklaracja o zasadach i środkach rozwoju współpracy kulturalnej i naukowej,} informacjioraz stosunków międzyludzkich.między Polską a Francją”[The Declaration on the Principlesand the Meansof Developmentof Culturaland ScientificCooperation, Information and Interhuman Relations, between Poland and France], Sprawy Międzynarodowe, 1975, No. 10, p. 163.

bilateral agreements which may better and fuller regulate the relations than the more universal multilateral agreements. This is also linked with the special position of the Final Act of CSCE.it

II

The activity of the foreign correspondent should be treated as one of the extra

-

institutional forms. Thecorrespondents may be classified according

to the time of their stay on the territory of a State into: permanent

correspondents

—

whoare accredited, and temporaryones

—

whoare assigned to a certain task

or

are performing only certain activities on the said

territory

.

There is also a certain class of permanent foreign correspondents

who

are

accredited to universal organizations, such as the League of Nations

or the United Nations

.

\₂

A special press service is attached to the UN

specialized organizations, and tointernational'

governmental and non

-govern

-mental organizations, in connection with the debatesof the highest statutory

body (

THE

GENERAL CONFERENCE

.

THE CONGRESS, THE GE

-NERAL

ASSEMBLY

, THE COUNCIL, THE

COMMITTEE

)

.

In

case

of an armed conflict the information is transmitted by

war

correspondents acting on the territory involved by the armed conflict

.

The 4th Hague convention of 18 October

.

1907, on laws and customs of land

war

, in chapter II concerning war prisoners, and later the 3rd

Geneva convention of 12 August,

.

1949, on the treatment of war prisoners,

include the war correspondents among the persons accompanying the armed

forces*

of their own country of their own accord

.

The character and mode of action of the war correspondents differ

from the activity of the foreign correspondents,

as

they act on the territory

11 _{See J.SYMONIDES, “Deklaracja zasadstosunków międzypaństwowych KBWE” [The}

Declaration of the Principles of Interestate Relations CSCE], Sprawy Międzynarodowe, 1975, No. 10, p. 23; and A.D. ROTFELD, “Konferencja Bezpieczeństwa i Współpracy

w Europie. Zagadnienia prawne” [Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Legal Problems],PaństwoiPrawo,1976, No.1

—

2, p.73ff.W

.

POEGGEL, “Kwestia obowiązującego

charakteru Aktu Końcowegoprzyszczególnymuwzględnieniu10-ciuzasad”[TheQuestionof the Binding Nature of the Final Act with Particular Regard to the Ten Principles], Przegląd

Stosunków Międzynarodowych, 1976, No. 1, p. 11 ff.

12 _{The League of Nations was the first international organization which introduced}

a system of accrediting journalists, granting them definite facilities, quasi

-

privileges.See more extensively on this subject: P.MAĆKOWIAK, op

.

cit

.

, p. 4; Government Press Services,

League of Nations, Geneva 1935; or United Nations Correspondents Association, New York 1965.

of their own State, even when it is

an

occupied territory and they are engaged in transmitting information about their own State.

Apart from foreign correspondents,press

-

attache’s should also be mentioned who are acting within the diplomatic representation of the delegating State

and are members of its diplomatic staff.

The foreign correspondents are differently treated depending

on

their

position and the nature of their functions

.

The foreign correspondent

is permanently employed; his task consists in gathering and transmitting

information; outside his

own

country he proves his identity by a passport

or some other document recognized

on

international scale.1’ The _status

of this categoryof persons has been normalized in multilateral international

and bilateral agreements,

as

well as by the practice of the States which

has developed some form of customs, and by the home legislation of every State. Thehithertoexistingdifferentiation had made it impossible toestablish uniform standards for the activity of persons of this category, irrespectively of the economic and political system of the State of which they

are

citizens

or which they represent on account of their function

.

This gap

was

filled up by the resolutions passed in the Final Act of CSCE

.

Today’s pattern of a foreign correspondent differs slightly from the

‘_{‘model” correspondent ofadozenorseveral dozen years ago. The difference}

comes

, among others, from the change in the natureof international relation

and from the role attributed now to information. If, in the past, the foreign correspondent was a “ monopolist” in transmitting news between States,

now he is one of the many international legal instruments in this sphere of activity

.

Whenactingasmediator in transmittinginformation, a foreign correspon

-dent should be guided not only by his own views, but also by the views

of the institution which he is representing abroad

.

These remarks may be

1 1

!5

13 _{The problem of war correspondents was the object of an international convention.}

The project submitted in 1971 by the Committee of Expert of the UN anticipated the

creation of a special international institution authorized to issue some documents to

journalists le’_{aving to the front testifying that they were neither soldiers nor a political}

mission and stating that they were under the protection of the States-consignatories of the Convention

.

The diplomatic Conference of 1975 on the problems of “the international human law to be applied duringarmed conflicts” included one resolution under the heading

“Journalists working on dangerous missions”. The resolution is dated 16 April, 1975,

doc. CDDH_/I_/293. 14 _Doc.

A_/8036, August 25, 1970.

15 _{Moreon this subject see:R.STARZYŃSKI, Agencje informacyjne}. _{Dzieje,stan obecny} i znaczenie prasowychagencjitelegraficznych 1836-1935 [ Information Agencies.History

.

Present Situationand the Significance of Télégraphe Press Agencies 1835

-

1935], Warszawa 1935,p. 49.

applied to foreign correspondents both from the western and socialist

States

.

1 0

In Poland, there

are

at present about 70 permanent accredited foreign

correspondents

.

They represent: pressagencies, daily newspapers, magazines,

broadcasting and television stations

.

17 _The

conditions of their stay on the territory of Poland are normalized by: the law

_of

29 March, 1963,

concerning foreigners; the joint instructions of the Ministers of Interior and Foreign Affairs of 13 March,

1967

, with regard to the stay conditions

of the permanent foreign correspondents on the territory of the Polish

People’

s

Republic; and also the departmental regulations.

’

8 _{The law}

_on

foreigners provides that a separate treatment regarding the conditions of crossing the boundaries of thePeople’

s

Poland and sojourning

on

our territory should be applied to those foreigners who come to Poland to performs

some

specificprofessional activities.Theseconditions

wre

regulatedbyseparateagree

-ments concluded between the Minister of the Interior and the interested ministers

.

The joint instructions specify when the permanent correspondent

maysojourn on the territory of Poland to perform his journalistic functions

.

A foreign correspondent’s sojourn

on

the territory of our country depends

on obtanining an “accreditation

” from

the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs

.

19 In accordance with the instruction, permanent press, radio and television

correspondents may sollicit

an

accreditation; the same refers to photo

-reporters, film and television recorders acting for foreign press and photo

-16 _{The problem is broadened by J.B. ADAMS, “What the Foreign Correspondent}

Does from News-paper’s Readers,” in : Journalism Quarterly, Spring 1966, p. 300 ff. Cf.

also: I.KRASICKI, “Korespondent zagraniczny

—

jego rola i zadania” [The Foreign Cor

-respondent’sRoleandTasks],ZeszytyPrasoznawcze, 1964, No. 4, pp. 3

—

9; and T. E. KRUG

-LAK, The Foreign Correspondents: A Study of the Men and Women Reporting for the

American Information Media in Western Europe, Geneva 1955.

17 _{Prasa Polska}

, 1976, No. 2.

18 _{Text of the law concerning foreigners of 29 March, 1963, see: Dziennik Ustaw PRL,}

No.15,item77, ZarządzenieMinistrówSpraw WewnętrznychiSpraw Zagranicznych z13marca

1967 r

.

[Regulation of the Minister of the Interior and the Minister of Foreign Affairs dated 13 March, 1967].

19 _{The conception of “accreditation” in its exact meaning should be referred to the}

province of diplomatic and consular law where it stands for the authentication of a person (a diplomat, a consul) by means of a letter of credence

—

in the case of a diplomat,and byconsular credentials in the case of a consul, for performing the functions determined in the attesting document. Cf. inthis matter Art. 14 or the Vienna Convention on diplomatic relations of 18 April, 1961. A

.

GÓRBIEL, op. cit. In a wider interpretation

there is also the possibility to accrédité an expen or a correspondent in the receiving State.This isconfirmed by the fact that the obligation of being accredited tothe seat of UN

in New York journalists and the technical staff of permanent delegations to the UN. Cf.

Commentsof E.J.OSMAŃCZYK,EncyklopediaSpraw Międzynarodowych i ONZ [ Encyclopedia

graphicagencies, dailypapers, magazines,

film

,radio and television enterprises

.

The fact of accreditation is confirmed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs

which issues an accreditation card. Thisdocument entitles its bearer to carry on his journalistic _{activities on} the territory of Poland.

When performing his journalistic _functions, the accredited foreign cor

-respondent is entitled to avail himself of the information and the help of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The foreign journalists are attended by the Polish Agencies "Interpress”.20

respondents in the Polish Agency"_{Interpress”keeps the foreign correspondents}

under its direct

“ care

”. They also get help from other sections, such as:

the press and photoservice sections, the section for foreign cooperation

and others.

The Polish Agency "_Interpress” _{receives and organizes the} stay of foreign press, radio, and television journalists. It arranges press conferences with the

leading ministries and with active members of the political, economic,

cultural and social life of our country

.

It ensures the technical and organizational conditions of the stay of radio and television teams. The contacts with this agency facilitate the realization of the tasks assigned to the accredited foreign correspondents by their own papers

.

They also facilitate

the moving about in the receiving country

.

ThePolishregulations make itpossiblefor members of the permanentforeign

correspondentsfamily tobecomeactive

as

journalists iftheyobtainaccreditation on the principles conceded to foreign correspondents. The persons employed by a permanent foreign correspondent may perform only technical functions

and they are not entitled to carry on a journalistic activity and to gather

information either in its

own

name or

on

behalf of their employer, the foreign correspondent

.

Bilateral international agreements signed by Poland with other countries

also regulate the position of the permanent foreign correspondents accredited

in our country. The agreements on cultural cooperation (or cultural and

scientific), the protocols, plans and programmes should also be included

among such agreements

.

Using the reciprocity-principle, they regulate the

exchange of journalists, press, radio, television, press agencies, film and

television operators, and photographers between the interested States. In the

agreements concerning cultural cooperation, the general principles of

an

ex

-The section of accredited

cor

-20 _{The matter is regulated by the agreement between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs} of the Polish People’_s Republic and the Polish Agency “Interpress”_.

change in many spheres of cultural life are quoted.2' These resolutions are subsequently specified in the agreementsconcluded directlyeither between the pressorganizationsof two countries, orbetween their radio and television institutions or press and photographic agencies

.

These agreements normalize the technical and organization questions as well as the merits of the problems.2 2

In accordance with the principle of reciprocity, the States treating in

these agreements the journalists _of the other party in the same way as their journalists

are

treated by the other State

.

There

are

some

cases

of levelling the position of journalists of another State with that of the first State’s

own

journalists (National Standard).

The accredited correspondents whose activity exceeds the boundaries

of one State are predestined to obtain a special legal status in international relations.

The special legal status, aiming to protect the interests of the delegating

State, is to enable

some

categories of persons

“to fulfil the tasks, functions or missions with which they were charged, to ensure their personal safety, their freedom and their independence with regard to the authorities of the receiving State”.23

“The permanent gathering and transmitting of information from the

territory of the State to which they are accredited” belong to the tasks

of the foreign correspondents.2

.

_{It matters that these activities should be}

carried on in a proper and efficient

manner

; to

ensure

freedom of communication both on the territory of the admitting state and outside of it, represents to the foreign correspondents one of the conditions for gathering and trasmitting information on international scale.2 "

Although the foreign correspondents are not included in the official

representation of a State abroad which enjoys diplomatic _and consular privileges and immunities, also reserved for international officials, they have.

21 _{Art. II of the cultural agreement between the People’s Poland and Holland of} 22 August, 1967, mentions the promotion of cooperation between “specialists in the sphere

of mass media” and in Art. 4 of the agreement of the cultural cooperation between the People’s Poland and GDR of 8 January, 1952 the parties agreed to “ facilitate the activity of press correspondents.”

22 _{E.g.:Theagreement oncooperation concerning television between thePolish Radio and} Television Committee “_Polskie Radio i Telewizja” and the Czechoslovakian Television of 27 April. 1963. The agreement on radio cooperation between the Committee onRadiophonie

Affairs “Polskie Radio” and the Committee on Radiophomic Affairs “Mongolian Radio” of 26 May, 1954.

23 _{J.SUTOR, Przywileje iimmunitetymiędzynarodowe [ International Privileges and Immu}

-nities], Warszawa 1973, p. 34.

24 _{Cf. Note of UN General Secretary, Doc. A/8036, 25 Aug., 1970.}

as it seems, obtained some facilities in the technical and organization scope

of transmitting information, owing to the tasks they are performing

.

The

States have decided to protects the foreign correspondents on a scale

which should enable them to carry on their professional activity.

Just as in the

case

of representative’

s

of the "_{traditional” foreign} service, in the instance of the foreign correspondents, the principle toenable

their activity is binding, i.e. everything necessary to the performing of their

functions should beensured.20 The ViennaConvention of 1961 on diplomatic

relations accepted the principle of functionality. It is the sum of both principles: proportionality and to make achievement possible

.

Most of the States do not agree to grant privileges to the foreign correspondents,

even

on a restricted scale, notwithstanding the increased

staff oftheforeign service of a State which

means

the spreading of privileges and immunities beyond the traditional circle of the diplomatic and consular

representativesof the States

.

Therefore, the latest foreign literature of public international law and also the home literature use the "_{term ” of “ in}

-ternational privileges and immunities” to stress the fact that the category of persons entitled to benefit by it has increased

.

27 _{The persons availing} themselves of it

are

talked of as the quasi

-

diplomatic or non-diplomatic

staff of the delegating State

.

At the

same

time, the States, recognizing

the great importance of the foreign correspondents’ activity in their country, consent to treat this group of persons in a special way

.

•distinguishing

it form

common

foreigners who enjoy a normal status. This special

treatment consists in granting only certain privileges to the foreign

corres

-pondents, whereas they are granted no immunities whatever

.

In practice,

adefinition of the foreign correspondent’s position as based on “privileges”

is avoided, in order to avoid association with privileges granted to diplomats

and consuls

.

Instead, the world “ facility” is commonly used

.

This facility consists in granting more rights either in the sphere of material law

or

in

formal law than those to which a foreigner is entitled on the territory of a country. It may be therefore, discussed whether

“

such a facility”

is not de facto

a

“limited privilege”

.

Thedifferentiated practiceof theStates in treating foreign correspondence favours now a multilateral settlement of the problem. Certain principles

may be, therefore, determined, acceptable to most States, which should

be guided by them in international relations

.

They will act as directions

when entering into bilateral agreements.

A comparative study of the home legislation of the States shows that

.

26 _{L.EHRLICH, Prawo mię}dzynarodowe [ International Law], Warszawa 1958_.

27 _{Cf. remarks of J. SUTOR upon this subject: op. cit., p. 66 and C.}W. _JENKS,

notwithstanding

some

difference expressed in the practices of the States,

some

principles

were

formed

as

to the way of treating accredited foreign correspondents

.

Onemay,therefore,speak of

a

similar treatment ofaccredited

foreign correspondents in the admitting State. The law

-

making process

with regard to the international protection of the foreign correspondents

has reached the point when the hitherto binding international custom favours taking up of a codification initiative, at least

on

a regional

European scale. In

no

case does it mean that the hitherto used form of

bilateral cooperation between the States should be given up

.

In the part of the Final Act of CSCE on cooperation in human and

other fields, there is a passage devoted to the “bettering of the working

conditionsof journalists”

.

Its wordingrefers also to the journalists accredited to the receiving State. It involves not only the journalists working for the press, the radio, the television

or

the film, but also,

on

observing the

respective rules,thepersons regularlyand professionalemployed inthealready mentioned mass media as technicians, photographers or operators.2 8

“The improvement of conditions” means that the applications submited

journaliststoobtainvisasshould be considered with good willand in a proper and reasonable time. The

States

, signatories of the Final Act of the

CSCE

, commit themselves to grant on the basis of an agreement, reiterated

visas for a definite time to the permanently accredited journalist. The

Final Act of CSCE recommends that the States should conclude bilateral

agreements in this matter

.

2 9

The Final Act advises the States to ensure better and fuller facilities

for the journalists, personal contacts with their

sources

of information.

TheStates aretomake it possible that the journalists accredited permanently or temporally should transmit information resulting from their professional

activities; as a whole, following the usual

course

and, rapidly, along the

canals admitted by the participating States.

'

_”

The above mentioned recommendations adopted within the frames of

CSCE

seem

tocorroboratetheadvancedpropositionthat foreign correspondents

(journalists) enjoy a special status

.

It concerns some facilities connected

with the performance of the journalists’ professional activities only. It does

not

mean

, as

was

said before, that they do not benefit by privileges

and

more

so by immunities in the admitting State. The text of the Final

Final Act of CSCE bears it out:

28 _{This concerns the case when citizens of the delegating state perform professionally}

their journalistic activity in favor of the receiving State. Cf. footnote to the Final Act..., p. 145.

29 _{Cf. the Final Act..., p. 145.}

“the participating States confirm that the journalists cannot be expulsed or otherwise

punished in consequence of their legally performed professional activity”.31

At the same time, however, the States received that:

“in case when an accredited journalist is to be expulsed, he will be informed of the

reason of this act and may apply for a reconsideration of his case”.32

Summing up, stress should be laid on the fact that the institution of

an

accredited foreign correspondentis

now one

of themanylegal international instruments, by means of which cooperation and exchange in the field of

information

are

realised

in

international relations. These prospects laid out by the CSCE

seem

favourable to the institutions and persons who are

helping to effect the exchange of information in international relations.

Everything now depends on the future practice of the States.

Supplement

The

Work of Journalist

and

Foreign Correspondents under the

Conditions

of Martial Law in the Polish People’s Republic

The changes made bya state in home legislation involve their international implications. They can refer to various fields of activity of a State in its relations with other countries.

Such was the case when martial law was introduced in Poland.

As a resultof introducingmartiallaw,the Prime Minister issued the regulationconcerning the work of foreign correspondents and Polish journalists on the territory of the Polish

People’s Republic.1 _{The regulation stated that its aim was to enable foreign correspondents}

and Polish journalists to do their work on the one hand and to warrant the supervision over their work in such a way that it will not impend the public order compulsory under martial law on the other hand.

It was acknowledged that accredited correspondents could still do their work if they

had a card confirming their accreditation.2 Apart from it under the conditions of material law they had to have a certificate entitling them to do their journalist job under material

31 _{Cf. the Final Act..., p. 146.} 3 2 _Ibid.

1 _{Cf. the regulation No. 2 issued by the Prime Minister of the Polish People}’_s Republic on 12 January. 1982.

(Monitor Polski.1982.No.2).

2 _{The card was issued on the basis of the regulations published by the Minister of the Interiorand the Minister}

of Foreign Affairson 13 March. 1967, concerning the conditionsof stay of permanent foreign correspondents on the territory of the Polish People’s Republic

—

see the Monitor Polski.1967. No.19. item 94 and the unpublished regulation

by the Minister of Foreign Affairs dated 10 May. 1967. referring to accreditation and activity of permanent foreign correspondentsontheterritory of thePolishPeople's Republic.

law. The certificate was issued by the Head of the Press Centre affiliated to the Ministry

of Foreign Affairs on the commission of the Minister of Foreign Affairs.3

As to the correspondents who stayed temporarily on the territory of the Polish People’s Republic, they could do their work if they had a visa entitling them to cross

our border and to stay on the territory of the Polish People’s Republic. Furthermore, theyhad to possessthesamecertificatewhich was required of accredited foreigncorrespondents. The principlesand formsof issuing theabove

-

mentioned certificates as well as the principles

of performing journalist work by foreign correspondents staying on the territory of the Polish People’s Republic under martial law were to be determined by the Minister of Foreign Affairs in consultation with the Minister of National Defence and the Minister

of the Interior.4

The Minister of Foreign Affairs was also to establish the principles of recording

journalist materials by means of “magnetic recordings” and ’’light pictures” and the principles of transferring abroad these materials by foreign correspondents who stayed on

the territory of the Polish People’s Republic under the conditions of martial law.5

Casuistry of the provision of the regulation No.2 issued by the Prime Minister dated 12 January, 1982, jn relation to foreign correspondents is worth nothing. Before martial

law was introduced in Poland as a result of an agreement signed between the Ministry

of Foreign Affairs and the Polish Agency “Interpress”, the latter dealt with all problems relating to foreign correspondents.

Asfar as Polish journalists are concerned, they could do their journalist duties on the ground of a card issued by an editor

-

in

-

chief of their own newspapers and magazines and a special permission entitling them to do their job under martial law. The permission was granted to a journalist by a press spokesman for the government on editor

-

in-chiefs application.6 _{When the permission was granted the regulation said that it was issued for}

an indicated time and it had to contain the data referring to the person’s identity who was granted this permission as well as the name of a newspaper or a magazine where a journalist was employed. Moreover, the permission determined an area where a journalist

could do his duties. Polish journalistswho possessed the above-named permission could take

photosandmotion picturesand record TV pictures includingthe area wherea banon taking

such photos and pictures was introduced.

Publication of journalist materials(it referred to Polish journalists) was done under the conditions defined in the regulation issued by the President of the Censorship dated 11 December, 1981.7

However, the transmission of journalist materials by both foreign correspondents and Polish journalists by means of communication was done in accordance with the principles defoned in the regulations of chapter I in the decree issued by the Cabinet on 12

i_{Cf. para}. _I._{part 1 of the regulation No.2 issued} by the Prime Minister on 12 January. 1982. see note 1.

4

The author of the present paper did not manage to determine if on the strength of the declaration para. 1.

part 3 of the regulation No. 2 issued by the Prime Minister on 12 January.1982.such a regulation was published by theMinister of ForeignAffairs.

5_{Cf.para. I.part4ofthe regulation No.2 issued by the Prime Minister},seeabove.

6_{Cf.para 2.of the regulation No.2. by thePrimeMinister},seeabove.

1_{Cf.para.4part2of the regulation No.2bythePrimeMinister},theciteddocument and theregulation issued bythe

President of the Head OfTioe Supervising Publications and Spectacles concerning the principles and forms of granting permissions for circulation publications and spectacles and proceedings concerning the use of enterprises, machinesand

December, 1981, referring to theexecution of regulations of martial law decree in the field

of communication8 _{and in the acts publisher on their basis.}

The regulation No. 2 issued by the Prime Minister on 12 January, 1982, introduced a ban on gathering materials which referred to defence and military problems except

information passed bya spokesmanfor the government and by the authorized representatives of the organs of defence department by foreign correspondents and Polish journalists who did not have appropriatecertificates and permissions. Information was usually delivered at special press conferences arranged for journalists and correspondents in the Press Centre affiliated to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and information included in the news report

PPA.9 _{The above}

-

_{mentioned ban on journalist materials also referred to the activity of}

military controlled units.

As both Polish journalists and foreign correspondents were faced with difficulties in

gathering press materials, the regulation recalled10 _{the principles of the resolution issued}

by the Cabinet on 7 February, 1978, which was still in force. According to the principles,

the institutions were obliged to make available materials which were interesting to Polish journalistsandforeigncorrespondents, in accordancewith the rulesdefined in theresolution11

and by the superior organs of the institutions under the stipulation that they would keep a State and official secret when they furnish journalists with information.

A great number of limitations referring to Polish journalists and foreign correspondents resulted from the above analysed principle of the regulation. They were connected with gathering journalist materials, publishing and sending them abroad. They also included the

fact that the journalists apart from accreditation had to possess certificates (permissions)

and they were not allowed to move on the whole territory of the Polish People’s

Republic.12

The PressCentre affiliatedtotheMinistryof Foreign Affairsdealtwith foreign correspondents staying in the Polish People’s Republic during the period of martial law. This job was

previously done by the Polish Agency “Interpress”. It can be concluded that an agreement

betweenthe Ministryof Foreign Affairsand the Polish Agency“Interpress

from 13 December, 1981.

» »1 3 _{was suspended}

8_{Dziennik Ustaw PRL.1981.}

No. 29. item 160.

9_Cf.para

.7.theregulation No.2by the PrimeMinister on12January.1982.thequoteddocument.

10_{Cf.para. 8 of thequoted regulation} .

11_{Cf. the resolution of the Cabinet dated 17 February. 1978. concerning further information improvement}

for

mass

-

media

—

see MonitorPolski.1978.No.5.item.21. 12 _{Beforemartial law wasintroduced}

,foreign correspondents who hadan accreditingcard, move freelyonthewhole

territory of our country. Under the conditions of martial law they could move only in Warsaw. The Press Centre afTiliatedto theMinistry of Foreign Affairs arranged special journey outside the capital forforeign correspondents to the

placesnamed by them.

PL ISSN 0554

—

498X

Some

Remarks

on

“

Soft” International Law

by REMIGIUSZ BIERZANEK

The Concept

and

Scope of “

Soft

” International Law

For a number of years in discussions on contemporary international law

moreand more often the metaphorical expression:“_soft"_{internationallaw has} appeared, which is contrasted with “_hard" _{international law, that is}

international law in the traditional, strict sense of the word

.

The term “_soft” _{law is almost generally admitted unsatisfactory and it} raises many objections. The French jurist J. Dupuy remarked jocosely in the

recapitualation of the debate of an international colloquy devoted to inter

-national legal aspects of the protection of environment that the expression

“soft law” is for a jurist as disappointing as “soft drink” for a smuggler who needs something stronger to drink to keep up his morale.1 _Individual

authors useother terms. Schächter usesthe term “non

-

binding agreements”,2

but it was deservedly met with the objection that from a logical point of view it'is inconsistent (contradicîio in adjecto),

for

these agreements are to

some extent binding on the contracting parties.3 _{Unquestionably, the term}

“

de facto agreement” 4 _{is not satisfactory, either, as it}

_concerns

_agreements

in the normative sphere and not in the factual. Another suggested term:

“non

-

legal norms”5 _{is too capacious containing i.a. rules of international} courtesy and international morality, and it also loses the notional nexus

of “soft” law with “ hard” law: “soft” law often fulfills functions similar

1 _{Cf. La protection de l’environnement et le droit international,} Colloque 1973, Leiden 1975, p. 623.

2 _O.SCH

ÄCHTER, ‘The Twilight Existence of Nonbinding International Agreements” ,

American Journal of International Law, April 1977, p. 299.

3 _{M.BOTHE, “Legal and Non Legal Norms: A Meaningful Distinction in International}

Relations”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, 1980, p. 67.

4 _{F.ROESSLER,“Law,defacto Agreementsand Declarationsof Principle}inInternational Economic Relations, German Yeaerbook of International Law, 1978, p. 67.

to the functions of “hard” law and many a time it acts

as

a substitute

.

Various other terms were proposed: “weak” law,

“

para

-

legal” {para

-juridiques) obligations or “pre

-

legal

”

{préjuridiques); “imperfect” law {lex

imperfecta)

_.

The term “soft” law was used for the first time by the distinguished

English jurist A. Mac Nair/’ Its advantage is that it embraces the whole

of the subject and not just individual categories of normative acts.

The scope of the normative acts, falling within “soft” law, is wide

.

Theresolutionsoforgansofinternationalorganizations ought to bementioned

in the first place

.

A particularly rich source of “_soft” _{international} law

are

resolutionsof theGeneral Assembly of the United Nations

.

Next, into “soft ” international law included are different kinds of intergovernmental bilateral

and multilateral agreements upon which the parties have not imposed

conventional rigour of international law for various

reasons

, as well

as

international agreements which have not been ratified yet (or at all) or

approved by a competent State organ. With respect to the last category

doubts are expressed whether it is not more proper to treat them

as

aseparate problem

.

“Gentleman’

s

agreements”

are

also included in“soft” law.

The

are

defined asagreementsconcluded verbally by plenipotentiaries(usually byministersofforeignaffairs)andtreated as personal obligationsofthosewho

has concluded them

.

7

In certain situations the States consider to

own

advantage not to impart the character of

norms

of “hard

”

international law to

norms

established

at international conferences out of consideration for the matter which is the object of the regulation. The Final Act of the Conference on Security and

Cooperation in Europe in 1975

can

serve

as

an example

.

It contains ~

in addition to norms restating the adopted principles of the Charter of

United Nations and other principles of international law

—

many agreed rules of procedure in different spheres of State policy. The participants in CSCE were in agreement that under the present conditions of international

relations the Final Act should not be promoted to an international treaty in the full sense of the word and for that

reason

they decided that the Act wasnot subject toregistration providedforinternationalagreementsinArticle102

of the Charter of United Nations, but will only be handed over to the

.UNSecretary General with the purpose of distributing it amongall members

6 _{Cf. G.J}

.H. van HOOF, Rethinking of the Sources of International Law, Deventer

1983. p. 187. 7

Cf.J.MAKOWSKI. Podręcznik prawamiędzynarodowego[Textbook of International Law].

Warszawa 1948, p. 441; R. SONNENFELD, “_Gentleman’_{s agreements} a umowy między

-narodowe”[Gentleman’_{s Agreementsand International Treaties],}Sprawy Międzynarodowe, 1958, No. 12, p. 44 ff.

as an official document of the Organization. Nonetheless, the participating

States assumed definite obligations in the Final Act expressed in its final

part:

“ The Participants States... declare their resolve, in the period following the Conference,

to pay due regard and implement the provisions of the Final Act of the Conference”. It does not seem possible what are precisely the normative acts

creating the rules of “soft” international law

.

To some extent also non

-governmental organizations can be

co

-authors of this law. A characteristic

example is the activity of the International Committee of the Red Cross in the non

-

conventional sphere, that is, in domains not covered by the rights

granted to the Committee in the Geneva Conventions on protection of

victims of

war

(the so

-

called Red Cross Conventions)

.

Thus on the basis of the By

-

Laws of the International Committee of the Red Cross, which is

an association registered in Switzerland and made up exclusively of Swiss

citizens, the Committee has a right to humanitarian initiative

.

It goes

without saying that these by

-

laws cannot create legal obligations for States

which are parties tothe Geneva Conventions. But/

moreover

, at international

conferences of the International Red Cross in which participate delegates of national societies of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, delegates of the

International Committee of the Red Cross, League of the Red Cross

and the Red Crescent Societies and delegates of all States which are parties to the Geneva conventions, resolutions are adopted entrusting the

International Committee of the Red Cross with humanitarian actions, among others for the benefit of political prisoners. The jurists dealing with this problem express the opinion that although obviously the resolutions of the

International Conference of the Red Cross are not legally binding for the

o

States and a

State

has a right not to agree to political prisoners being visited bythe delegatesof theCommittee,such resolutionsare ofa “ para

-

legal”

characterentitlingtheCommittee to offerservices in this respect.J

.

Moreillon

arguesthat they create aframework within which theInternationalCommittee

of the Red Cross may feel more unconstrained when interceding in this matter with the States, and the states

at own citizens.8 _K

_.

_{Kocel states that the proposition of ICRG to visit} political prisoners cannot be treated

as

inadmissible interference in a State’s

internal affairs.9

It seems that such features entitle the mentioned norms to

, be included in

“

soft” international law

.

less free in their actions directed

8 _{J.MOREILLON, LeComité International de laCroix}

-

_{Rougeet la protectiondes détenus} politiques, Genève 1973, p. 66.

9 _{K.KOCEL, “Działalność Międzynarodowego} Czerwonego Krzyża w sytuacjach napięć

i zamieszek wewnętrznych”[Activitiesof the International Red Cross in Situations of Tension and International Unrest], Państwo i Prawo, 1986, No. 2, p. 77.

The Binding

Force

of “Soft” Law

For a number of years considerations concerning the legal nature of

“soft” law have above all concentrated on resolutions of international

organizations, and on the resolutionsof the General Assemblyof the United

Nations in particular. Many studies have been devoted to this problem.1 0

Without entering into particulars it can be stated that among the resolutions

of the GeneralAssembly many authorsdistinguish the category of declaration

and other resolutionsof significance to international law, although the rules of conduct contained in these resolutions are not sensu stricto provisions

of international law

as

they are neither provisions of binding international

agreements nor rules of customary law. There is

concurrence

of opinions that the resolutions of the General Assembly cannot lay

a

claim to be the

source

of international law equally with international treaties and custom.

It must be reminded that the San Francisco conference rejected the proposal of the Philippine delegation tending toward granting the General Assembly of UN the power of legislating. Nevertheless, the great majority of the authorsassume that the above statement does not

mean

that those resolutions

lack legal significance. Lauterpacht wrote of the resolutions of the General Assembly. :

“Whatever may be the content of the recommendation and whatever may be the nature

of the circumstances of the majority by which it has been reached, it is. nevertheless

a legal acts of the principal organ of the United Nations which Members of the United Nationsare undera duty to treat with a degree of respect appropriate to resolutions of the General Assembly”_.11

The

same

author wasof the opinion that there existed two types of legal

obligätions: legal obligations which

are

“ rudimentary, elastic and imperfect

intangibleandalmostnominal” such

as

the obligation togivedueconsideration in good faith to the Resolution of the General Assembly, _and other legal obligations which are “ automatic” and require that full effect be given to the Resolution of the General Assembly.

’

2 Lachs maintains that the

10_{Of the more important the following should be mentioned: J.CASTANEDA,}

“Valeur juridique des résolutions des Nations Unies”, Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International (further on quoted RÊADI), 1970, vol. I , p. 205 fT; O.ASAMOAH,

The Legal Significance of the Declarations of the General Assembly of the United Nations, The Hague 1966; A.J.P. TAMMES, Decisions of International Organs as a Source of InternationalLaw,RCADI,1958,vol. 2;M.VIRALLY,“Valeur juridique desrecommendations

des organisations internationales” , Annuaire Français de Droit International, 1956; K. SKU

-BISZEWSKI, Uchwały prawotwórcze organizacji międzynarodowych [Law

-

making Resolutions

of International Organizations], Poznan 1965. 11 _{ICJ Reports, 1955}

, p. 119 fT.

12 _{Citedfrom D.H.N. JOHNSON,“The Effectof Resolutionsof the General Assembly}

resolutions of the General Assembly, although they are not lex perfecta

donot lack all legal significance ; underconcretecircumstancesthe Resolution

of the General Assembly has a certain moral value, a persuasive weight

which is to be reckoned with.13 _{According to Sch}

ächter in consequence of the activities of the organs of UN

“We now have

—

whatever its shortcomings

—

a functioning system both for examining

andevaluatingState behaviour onthe basisofwidely accepted normsand for generating new,

more concrete rules to meet felt necessities”.14

Wengler regardsresolutionsofinternational organs as secondary forms of

creationof international law, andhe takes

a

noteof the increasing significance of this “secondary international law” {sekundäres Völkerrecht)

.

opinion,resolutions of theGeneralAssembly“cannot be consideredinterference in internal affairs”, because “beingdoubtlesslyof political force,do not entail

coercitive measures'_’.16

15

In Buza’s

According ot Fenwick resolutions adopted at in

-ternational conferences, although they may be considered to be moral

obligations only

“they havebeen regarded de factoas creating bindingobligations,so thata State neglecting

«_{1 7}

to comply with them may be called to account by the other parties to the declaration .

With time discussions on “soft” law have increased the scope of their

considerations, aimingat

certain

generalizationsincludingnot only resolutions

oforgansof internationalorganizations, but otherkindsof “soft” law as well.

The American jurist Baxter has attempted certain systematization of legal

and political effects of “soft” law. He concludes that if States have

some

sort of written norm

consented

to by the States involved, the future

course

of discussion, negotiation, and even agreement will not be the same as they would have been in the absence of the

norm

. Once a matter has

become the subject of such a norm, the matter

can

no longer be asserted

to be

one

within the reserved domain or domestic jurisdiction of the State.

Normsof “soft” lawestablish new standardsof relevance for the negotiations

between the parties, certain arguments will be ruled out

.

for instance

.

13 _{M. LACHS, “Współczesne organizacje międzynarodowe i} rozwó_j prawa mi_ędzyna

-rodowego” [ContemporaryInternationalOrganizations and the Development of International

Law], Państwo i Prawo, 1963, No. 12, p. 834 fT. and “O potrzebie konkretyzacji prawnych

zasad współistnienia” [On the Need of Specification of Legal Principles of Coexistence], Państwo i Prawo

.

1963. No. 5

—

6. p. 783.

14

O. Schächter in the review of R. Higgins’s book in American Journal of International

Law

.

Januaiy 1965, p. 170.

15 _{W.WENGLER, Völkerrecht, Berlin 1964, vol. 1, p. 319.}

16 _{L. BUZA, The Trend of Development of International Law, Questions of International} Law, Budapest 1964, p. 9 fT.